An ‘Army of Superfluous Women’: Australian Single Women and the First World War Elicia Victoria Taylor BA (Honours I) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History University of Newcastle School of Humanities and Social Science November 2019 This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship. STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo. Some material from Chapter 2 was included in an article published during my candidature. This article was titled “’Unspeakably happy and content’: Single women’s surprising First World War Service” in the History Magazine of the Royal Australian Historical Society, No. 136 (June 2018). Elicia Taylor i ABSTRACT When the First World War was declared, Olive King sensed an opportunity for adventure. After purchasing and converting an Alda truck into an ambulance, King entered into war service as an ambulance driver with the Scottish Women’s Hospitals and, later, the Serbian Army. While King’s wartime episode might be regarded as an aberration, other independent-minded Australian women acknowledged the war’s potential to liberate them from sheltered lives of domesticity. Australian single women became prominent figures in overseas humanitarian ventures, managed communications and logistics networks, and excelled as medical specialists in challenging environments. Home front upheavals also affected single women in diverse ways as they actively offered their time and skills to essential services, publicly appealed for opposition to war and conscription, sustained the nation’s education institutions, and influenced public policy regarding home front morality. Yet only snippets of these women’s experiences have received scholarly attention within Australia’s broader First World War history. This thesis tells the story of the First World War through the lens of Australian women who were unmarried, separated or widowed prior to the war, and variously regarded as ‘superfluous’, ‘surplus’ or simply ‘problematic’ within Australian public discourse. Shining a light on the experiences of women less constrained by their marital or maternal status offers a more nuanced account of women’s experiences in war while adding to emerging literature acknowledging Australian women’s self-perceptions of their value and legitimate citizenship during the early twentieth century. Adopting a hybrid micro-biographical method, this study draws upon archival records, correspondence, memoirs, diaries and newspapers to argue that Australian single women experienced war in unique ways as direct and active participants – transcending gendered expectations of their capabilities while also confronting resistant societal attitudes towards their prominent and self-assured wartime activism. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In completing this thesis, I have been blessed by the enthusiasm, support and expertise of my two supervisors, Professor Victoria Haskins and Dr Kate Ariotti. Victoria’s encouragement during my Honours project inspired my continuation into postgraduate studies, a decision that has been life-changing. As my principal supervisor, Victoria provided generous and expert guidance in sources, structure and argument. She has also been an incredible mentor, and an example of consummate professionalism throughout my postgraduate studies. I am particularly grateful for her empathetic support in dealing with the challenges of academia, parenthood, and life in general. Co-supervisor Kate Ariotti’s expertise in Australian war history has been incredibly valuable, and I have found her enthusiasm contagious. I have particularly appreciated Kate’s encouraging feedback, and her ‘eagle-eyed’ attention to detail over the past three and half years. Over the course of my postgraduate studies, I have also appreciated the financial support I received through an Australian Research Council Research Training Program scholarship, the University of Newcastle Vice Chancellor Award, and the National Council of Women (NCW) Australian History Award. Being able to focus on my studies without added financial pressure has been an enormous privilege. I deeply value the generosity provided by these organisations and the faith they have placed in my abilities. I have also benefited from advice and assistance from scholars and specialists at the University of Newcastle and beyond. Associate Professor Josephine May, Dr Wendy Michaels and Dr Alana Piper were most generous and helpful in suggesting possible research avenues. A variety of archivists and librarians at the Australian War Memorial, the National Library of Australia, the National Archives of Australia, the State Libraries of New South Wales and Victoria, and the University of Melbourne aided my research, and I deeply value their assistance. Kerry Neale and Emma Campbell at the Australian War Memorial were especially generous with their time and advice. Bryce Abraham and Padraic Gibson kindly helped me to overcome the first hurdle of my PhD – confirmation – and I thank them both. iii To the extraordinary group of women in MC148 – Dr Amy Lovat, Dr Di Rayson, Dr Naomi Fraser, Dr Annika Herb, Honae Cuffe, Kerry Plunkett, Ash McIntyre, Ella Rusak, Caroline Schneider and Heather Lyle – thank you. I have had the privilege of joining this supportive and generous group of fellow postgraduates at different stages of their academic journey. Their friendship and support have been vital in helping me get to the finish line, and a highlight of my PhD experience. I have made lifelong friends through this process. Joining me from day one, Honae Cuffe’s wisdom and self- discipline have been truly inspiring. I have learned so much from this remarkable young woman for whom a bright future awaits. The assistance provided by the School of Humanities and Social Science, and the collegiality of the postgrad cohort at the University of Newcastle, have been invaluable. A special mention must go to Pearl Nunn for her sympathetic ear and optimism, and Miriam Burgess whose perpetual can- do attitude is such a joy. Finally, to my long-suffering family. Thank you for your patience and support while I undertook this long research journey. To my husband, Dean, I deeply value your love and support, and the secure home life you have helped foster while I have been rather distracted. My sons, Joshua and Oliver, thank you for understanding my need for time, space and quiet, and for helping me to maintain a sense of perspective during my studies. I sincerely hope I have not turned you both against university studies! This thesis is dedicated to my parents. My father, David McLean – a true teacher and a man of integrity – always expressed faith in my abilities, championed my efforts, and demonstrated such pride in the achievements of his children and grandchildren. My mother, Judi McLean, continues to inspire me with her generous heart, her zest for life, and more recently, her courageous approach to widowhood. iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF IMAGES vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii INTRODUCTION: Horribly Independent 1 1. Working out Her Destiny 29 Single Women Prior to War 2. A Streak of Vagabond 50 Freedom, Adventure and Service 3. Looking After Their Boys 80 Women’s Humanitarian Enterprises 4. Alleviating Distress 110 Women Leaders in Communication Networks 5. Channeling Women’s Faculties 140 Medicine, Leadership and Activism 6. A Brigade of Lady Helpers 169 Women’s Home Front Patriotism 7. Separate From All that Makes for War 201 Women’s Anti-war Activism 8. Modelling Professional Spinsterhood 231 Women Teachers During War 9. The New Social Work 262 Policing Home Front Morality CONCLUSION: Women Have Found Themselves 293 BIBLIOGRAPHY 300 v LIST OF IMAGES Image 1: Olive May (Kelso) King, c. 1915 60 Australian War Memorial (P01352-002) Image 2: Studio Portrait Olive May (Kelso) King, c. 1916 64 Australian War Memorial (P01352.001) Image 3: WWI: English Munitions Recruiting Campaign, 1914-1918 66 Australian War Memorial (H13179) Image 4: Member of the Women’s Land Army, 1915-1918 70 Imperial War Museum (Q54607) Image 5: Miss Louise Mack disguised as a Flemish Maid Servant 73 Sun (Sydney), 18 July, 1915 Image 6: Miss Rose Venn-Brown 90 Sunday Times, 29 April, 1917 Image 7: Miss Verania (Rania) MacPhillamy, Rafa, 1919 98 Australian War Memorial (B00865) Image 8: Group portrait of Miss Verania MacPhillamy, Rafa, 1919 101 Australian War Memorial (B00913) Image 9: Miss L. E. Armstrong 104 Country Life Stock and Station Journal, 21 March, 1924 Image 10: Studio Portrait of Vera Deakin, Australian Red Cross, 1918 123 Australian War Memorial (P02119.001) Image 11: Portrait of Miss Mary Elizabeth Chomley, 1914-1918 128 Australian War Memorial (H01366) Image 12: Mrs Annie Wheeler, c. 1920 133 Capricornia Coast Historical Society Image 13: Dr Phoebe Chapple, MM, c. 1917 155 Australian War Memorial (P10871.005)