REVELATION AND THE ‘CRISIS OF TRADITION’ IN KABBALAH: 1475–1575 Moshe Idel 1. Tradition, Reception and Revelation in Early Kabbalah During the first three centuries of its historical and literary existence, namely between approximately the years 1175 to 1492, the Jewish lit- erature known as Kabbalah produced several distinct schools whose attitudes to the manner in which this religious knowledge has emerged and is transmitted differ dramatically.1 Firstly I shall describe two major approaches: the traditionalist one, gravitating around Nahmanides’s approach, and the revelatory one, first connected to the ecstatic Kab- balah of Abraham Abulafia, to the Zoharic literature, and to the lite- rature known as Sefer ha-Meshiv. Then I shall turn my attention to issues related to some of the views articulated in the powerful Safedian Kabbalistic centre during the mid-16th century regarding the emer- gence and transmission of Kabbalah. In the mid-thirteenth century the Catalan Kabbalist Nahmanides and his school claimed that oral transmission, when performed in a controlled manner from a reliable master to his student, is the only source of authentic Kabbalah in the present. In the introduction to his Commentary on the Pentateuch—which includes some allusions to Kabbalistic topics—Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman, also known as Nah- manides (1194–1270), wrote: I bring into a faithful covenant and give proper counsel to all who look into this book not to reason or entertain any thought concerning any of the mystic hints which I write regarding the hidden matters of the Torah, for I do hereby firmly make known to him that my words will not be comprehended nor known at all by any reasoning or contemplation, excepting from the mouth of a wise Kabbalist [speaking] into the ear 1 See Wolfson, ‘Beyond the Spoken Word’; Idel, ‘Transmission’, and for some examples of earlier transmission of secret knowledge: Idel, ‘Defining Kabbalah’. See also below, note 7. 256 moshe idel of an understanding recipient; reasoning about them is foolishness; any unrelated thought brings much damage and withholds the benefit.2 In explaining the sources of Kabbalah as it reached him, Nahmanides combines the idea of an ancient secret revelation delivered to Moses with that of a subsequent faithful transmission based on Rabbinic authority. This is a non-hermeneutical situation, which means that without the reliable transmission no one can reconstruct the secrets of the Torah by an independent analysis of the canonical text. From the semantic point of view Nahmanides inverts the manner in which the term Kabbalah functions: while semantically it signifies ‘reception’, it is conceived by him here as pointing much more to ‘esoteric tradi- tion’, which means that he accentuates the process of faithful trans- mission of an authoritative type of knowledge concerning the secrets of the Torah. The above passage can also be summarized as follows: a master, described as a Rabbi (which means indubitably a male), is the only source of transmitting the secrets of the Torah, described as Kabbalah, to another male. Implicitly, other sources of obtaining information that may be understood as Kabbalah are excluded: revelation from a non-human, God, angels, non-Rabbis, or as the result of innovation by means of intellectual activity. I assume that this restriction has been imposed by Nahmanides as part of the debate around the dissemina- tion of Kabbalah in the circle of the followers of R. Isaac ben Abraham the Blind.3 It is also possible that traditions related to the revelations of Elijah in circles of Kabbalists in Provence provoked this restriction of Kabbalah to a tradition transmitted orally alone.4 However, this solemn declarative passage is not just a vain warning, but is backed by what I see to be a practice followed in Nahmanides’ commentary of hinting at secrets without revealing them in a written 2 Nahmanides, Commentary on the Pentateuch, vol. I, 7–8. On this seminal passage see Septimus, Hispano-Jewish Culture, 113–114; Idel, ‘We Have No Kabbalistic Tradi- tion’ and ‘NAHMANIDES’; Abrams, ‘Orality in the Kabbalistic School’; Halbertal, Concealment and Revelation, 83–85 and his By Way of Truth; Huss, Like the Radiance of the Sky, 75–76, 80–81, 219–221 and for another approach Wolfson, ‘By Way of Truth’. 3 See Idel, ‘NAHMANIDES’, 28–42. 4 See Scholem, Origins of the Kabbalah, 35–38, 242–243 and Heschel, Prophetic Inspiration, 32–37. revelation and the ‘crisis of tradition’ in kabbalah 257 form.5 In any case, in his Commentary on the Pentateuch, he writes that: The Account of Creation [Ma’aseh Bereshit] is a profound secret, which cannot be understood from the [biblical] verses, and cannot be known in toto but by the way of the [esoteric] transmission, up to Moses, [who received it] from the mouth of the [divine] Dynamis. Those who know it are obligated to hide it.6 Nahmanides’ great authority, combined with the solemnity of passages in the introduction of a book that became a classic, contributed to its impact on later generations. However, already in the generation after Nahmanides, in the two most important circles of Kabbalists, some diverging understandings of Kabbalah were forged. Given the fact that Nahmanides’ views were well-known, it is plausible that the new con- cepts were, at least in part, a reaction to the restrictions imposed by Nahmanides. It should be mentioned that among the followers of Nahmanides’ Kabbalah at the end of the thirteenth century, mostly those in Barcelona, there are testimonies as to the oral transmission of the pronunciation of the letters of the divine name, a process in which Ashkenazi masters initiated some Spanish Kabbalists.7 One who was not an adherent of Nahmanides’ Kabbalistic school was the founder of ecstatic Kabbalah, R. Abraham Abulafia (1240–1291). He and his followers assumed that although Kabbalistic topics can be learned from ancient books, and also received orally from masters, the highest form of receiving Kab- balah is nevertheless by means of a revelation that can be induced in the present through certain techniques: In order to understand my intention regarding [the meaning of] Qolot [voices] I shall hand down to you the known Qabbalot, some of them having been received from mouth to mouth from the sages of [our] gen- eration, and others that I have received from the books named Sifrei Qabbalah, composed by the ancient sages, the Kabbalists, blessed be their memory, concerning the wondrous topics; and other [traditions] 5 For various aspects of Nahmanides’ exegesis in general see Goodman, ‘Typologi- cal Interpretation’; Pedaya, Nahmanides; Halbertal, Concealment and Revelation and his By Way of Truth. 6 Nahmanides, Commentary on the Pentateuch, vol. I, 9. See also Yisraeli, The Inter- pretation of Secrets, 241 and Halbertal, Concealment and Revelation, 86–87. 7 See Idel, ‘Ashkenazi esotericism’. 258 moshe idel bestowed on me by God, blessed be He, which came to me from ThY8 in the form of the ‘Daughter of the Voice’, these being the higher Qab- balot [‘Elyonot].9 The plural for Qabbalah, Qabbalot, is understood to mean Bat Qol, which refers to a certain type of lower revelation in Talmudic tra- dition. Thus the highest form of Kabbalah is not the oral and writ- ten transmission, but the reception of a revelation from above. While Nahmanides was interested in combining the picture of a glorious past (when the final revelation took place) with a reliable establishment that perpetuated the context revealed in the past, Abulafia was much more concerned with a glorious present in which the authority of Rab- bis is much less important—and the recipient of the revelation, namely he himself, could compete even with Moses.10 Drastically different as Abulafia’s concepts of Kabbalah are from that of Nahmanides’ and his school, they nevertheless share—at least implicitly—the view that a woman does not partake in the Kabbalis- tic tradition. For the ecstatic Kabbalist, a Kabbalist is a philosopher and a mystic who may become the son of the cosmic Intellectus Agens itself described as the son of God.11 Women, historical or generic, are not mentioned in their writings as parts of the chain of transmission, nor are they mentioned as being qualified in one way or another to become practitioners of Kabbalah, and nor does the feminine hypos- tasis play any role. According to Abulafia, as a revelation from above the lore of Kab- balah is also consonant with philosophy, although it is achieved by means of linguistic techniques that originally have nothing to do with philosophical speculations. So, for example, we learn from a book he wrote in 1285/6 in Messina: We and all those who follow our intellectual Kabbalah [Qabbalah musk- kelet], [attain] prophecy by means of the combinations of letters; it will teach us the essence of reality as it is, in an easier way in comparison to all the [other] ways in existence in the world, despite the fact that the 8 I read the two letters as pointing in a short form to theos, namely God. Abulafia already uses the form THYV in order to point to God in his early treatise Sefer Get ha-Shemot; see Idel, Language, 24. 9 Abulafia,Sefer ha-H̠ esheq, fol. 4b. I cannot enter here into an analysis of the question of what Abulafia conceived to be Kabbalistic books, but lists of such books occur in his writings. 10 See Idel, Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah, 50–51. 11 On this issue see Idel, Ben, 276–376. revelation and the ‘crisis of tradition’ in kabbalah 259 knowledge of the essence of reality is apprehended by much thought. What brings it about [this knowledge] is the combination [of letters], and this combination induces it [the knowledge] as immediately as a youth studies the Bible, then the Mishnah and Gemara’, he will indubi- tably achieve it quickly, with perseverance, being better than any [other] thought.12 The main issue to be learnt from the Kabbalah according to this Kab- balist is the essence of reality, not the secrets of the Torah.