Lincoln University Digital Thesis Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the thesis and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the thesis. Mixing With The Mountains A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Ph.D. at Lincoln University by Graham E. H. Strickert Lincoln University March 2011 1 Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Ph.D. Social and Environmental Systems Faculty of Environment, Society and Design tract Socio-Cultural Viability with Respect to Compounding Natural Hazards: A case study of Alpine Ski Areas by Graham E. H. Strickert Today there is interest in building resilient communities. Identifying and managing the risks of natural hazards with communities who face compounding hazards is challenging. Alpine ski areas provide a unique context to study this challenging and complex process. The traditional approach taken to manage natural hazards is discipline-centric and focuses on common (e.g. high probability low consequence) natural hazards such as avalanches. While this thesis acknowledges that the common approach is rational, it argues that we can extend our communities of practice to include rare (e.g. low probability / high consequence) natural hazards such as earthquakes. The dynamically complex nature of these ‘rare’ hazards limits our understanding about them, but by seeking and using the lived experiences of people in mountain communities some knowledge can be gained to help improve our understanding of how to adapt. This study focuses on such an approach in the context of alpine ski areas prone to earthquakes as a first step toward identifying key policy opportunities for hazard mitigation in general. The contributions can be broken down into methodological, contextual, and theoretical pursuits, as well as opportunities for improving future research. A development mixed method triangulated approach was justified because the research problem (i.e. earthquakes in ski areas) has had little consideration. The context provided the opportunity to test the integration of methods while dealing with the challenges of research in a novel context. Advancement to fuzzy cognitive mapping was achieved through the use of unsupervised neural networks (Self- organizing Maps or Kohonen Maps). The framework applied in the multi-site case study required a synthesis of current approaches, advances to methods and a functional use of ii cultural theory. Different approaches to participatory policy development were reviewed to develop a research protocol that was accessible. Cultural theory was selected as a foundation for the thesis because of its’ preference for plural rationalities from five ways of organizing. Moreover, the study undertook a shift away from the dichotomy of ‘methodological individualism’ and ‘methodological collectivism’ and instead chose the dividual (i.e. social solidarities that consist of culural biases, behavioral strategies and social relations) as a consistent unit of analysis despite three different methodologies including: field studies, qualitative interviews, and fuzzy cognitive maps. In this sense, the thesis sought to move away from ‘elegant solutions’ from singular solidarities or methods toward a research philosophy that sustains requisite variety and clumsy solutions. Overall the approach was a trandisciplinary framework that is a step toward sustainable hazards mitigation. The results indicate that the selections of risks and adaptation strategies associated with the in-situ hazards are driven by roles that managers, workers, and riders play in the context. Additionally, fuzzy cognitive maps were used as an extension of qualitative interviews and demonstrated the potential for power struggles that may arise between participant groups when considering strategies for preparation, response and recovery. Moreover, the results stress that prolonged engagement with stakeholders is necessary to improve the policy development process. Some comments are made on the compatibility condition of congruence between cultural biases, behavioural strategies, and social relations. As well, inclusion of the hermit/autonomous solidarities is stressed as a necessary component of future applications of cultural theory. The transdisciplinary mixed-method framework is an approach that can be transferred to many other vital areas of research where integration is desirable. Keywords: Mixed Methodology, Transdisciplinary, Triangulation, Geomorphic Assessments, Qualitative Interviews, Fuzzy Cognitive Maps, Natural Hazards, Cultural Theory, Requisite Variety. iii This thesis is dedicated to my family and friends. iv Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank my whole family for encouraging me to pursue this dream. I also thank Lincoln University for supporting this research. A special thanks goes to Sandhya Samarasinghe for teaching me about artificial neural networks, self-organising maps, and the world of science, all of which were done with humility, empathy, and forthrightness. I thank Keith Morrison for setting me on a path of external discovery that also led to many internal realizations. In addition, a significant thanks to Tim Davies, who called me out during my proposal defence and sent me into the field to look, listen and feel the context; this made a huge difference to my experience and understanding. I would also like to thank Crile Doscher who provided guidance, encouragement, and insight that was invaluable to the final product. Lastly, I would like to thank Kevin Moore for your most insightful insights, critical reviews, and adaptable ‘mind’ that connected the neurons that were obviously not firing. Others whose ideas (written or otherwise) contributed to this study include: Michael Thompson, Ken Hughey, Gary Steel, Ed Hernshaw, Marina Apgar, Tom Wilson, Anekant Wandres, and Quinton Findaly. All of you provided wisdom, comments, criticisms and wake up calls at the best and worst of times. Thank you. An anonymous editor contributed to the clarity and expression of the text. A significant thanks goes to all who participated in my study from formal interviewees to informal conversations with people who are passionate about the mountains. Finally, I would like to thank my wife and son for giving me the freedom, encouragement, and understanding to complete this journey. Thank you both for your unconditional devotion. v Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ xi List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 : Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Shifting Perspectives of Natural Hazards ......................................................................... 2 1.2 Participatory Approaches to Policy Research: .................................................................. 5 1.2.1 The Risk Management Approach .......................................................................... 5 1.2.2 The Empowerment Approach ............................................................................... 6 1.2.3 The Resilience Approach ...................................................................................... 8 1.2.4 Summary of the three approaches ....................................................................... 10 1.3 Crossing Disciplinary “Fault-Lines” ............................................................................... 11 1.4 From Plural Rationality to Socio-cultural Viability ........................................................ 14 1.4.1 The Five Ways of Life: A short fictitious story of four different people depending on each other for viability .................................................................. 18 1.4.2 Lessons from the Short Story .............................................................................. 23 1.4.3 Criticisms of Cultural Theory ............................................................................. 33 1.4.4 Summary of Cultural Theory .............................................................................. 34 1.5 Goals and Objectives: Three questions needing mixed methods .................................... 36 1.6 Summary of Goals and Objectives .................................................................................. 38 Chapter 2 : Mixed Methodology ........................................................................................... 40 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................