Suffering, Solidarity and Spirituality: The Lived Experiences of Internally Displaced Women in Northern Nigeria Chidimma Beloved Aham-Chiabuotu A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand May 2019 ABSTRACT Since 2009, the Nigerian state, has been under intense attack by an Islamic extremist group popularly known as Boko Haram. As a result of the insurgency, over two million persons have been internally displaced, 53% of whom are women. Previous studies on the insurgency have focused on the insurgents, and their abduction and use of women as sexual objects and suicide bombers, but none of those studies explored the perspectives of the women who were affected by the insurgency. In addition, women’s experiences with displacement have been neglected whether or not they were abducted by Boko Haram at any time during the conflict. Previous scholarly literature on women in conflict and displacement settings have given much attention to women’s experiences of sexual violence in conflict while neglecting other forms of suffering and hardship that women endure in such settings. This thesis utilizes a hermeneutic phenomenological approach located within the constructionist paradigm to explore the lived experiences of women who were displaced by Boko Haram insurgency. This approach allowed me to explore women’s perspectives of their experiences, both with Boko Haram and with displacement, and the historical, socio-cultural and structural factors that have underpinned those experiences and how they interpret them. I used semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to generate data with 52 women who had been internally displaced for an average of three years. The participants were recruited from camps and host communities in Jos and Abuja, Northcentral Nigeria. A critical thematic analysis of the participants’ accounts was done using relevant literature and theoretical concepts from both continental African women’s thinking and United States Black women’s thinking as interpretive tools. Foucault’s ideas on power were also used to make sense of some aspects of the data. The study reveals that Boko Haram insurgency and displacement created an arena for different forms of gender-based violence against women and their families. It also shows that the participants in this study were exposed to serious situations of insecurity, suffering and struggle for survival. The women’s suffering was compounded by a weakened socio-political system in Nigeria, and lack of tangible support from the government. While their experiences are similar to those of other internally displaced women and refugees in other settings, their living conditions were no different from i those of the poorest Nigerian citizens. In-depth analysis reveals that the women’s suffering in displacement was part of a cycle of violence arising from culturally informed gender inequality, poverty and social inequalities, as well as structural violence at different levels. Rather than cast the internally displaced women as helpless and powerless victims, this study foregrounds the women’s strength and resilience, and projects them as the heroines of the Boko Haram insurgency. The study shows the women’s commitment and determined effort to ensure the survival of their male partners, their children and their communities. Survival for the women in this study demanded a process of continuous negotiation with both humans and supernatural beings. They drew on their knowledge of their indigenous cultures, which includes African traditional religious beliefs, their Christian and Islamic religions and their personal spirituality, to resist different forms of oppression while they pragmatically supported their men in their struggles. Their culture, religion and spirituality also provided a framework for interpreting their experiences of violence, including sexual violence, and gave them the impetus for selfless service towards their collective survival as internally displaced persons. The findings of this study suggest that in the midst of all the suffering and struggle of internally displaced women in Nigeria, religion and religious leaders are very relevant as sources of support. Yet, their problems can only be effectively addressed if there is renewed political will to address widespread poverty, social inequities and gender inequality. This will involve creating an enabling environment with appropriate infrastructure to support economic growth and creating equal educational and economic opportunities for men and women. It will also involve efforts to promote cultural reorientation towards cultures that recognize, appreciate and encourage the contributions of both men and women in family, community and nation building. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my Husband GODSPOWER AHAMEFULA CHIABUOTU, who encouraged me to make the hard decision of changing my career from Nursing to Public health, and also sacrificed everything he could to support me through this PhD journey; And My most cherished Seed of Hope, JOSEPH CHIMEMEJOGHIM (My God did not offend me) AHAM-CHIABUOTU, who was conceived during the course of this PhD, after thirteen years of trying. I looked forward to nursing him as my next project after this thesis, but the dream of having him was cut short at 19 weeks of gestation. The hope he brought into my life and that of my husband can never be taken away. Chimemejoghim will forever be part of this PhD story, not just because he was conceived during the course of this study, but because losing him brought me into deeper connection with the participants of this study, who lost many of their children during Boko Haram attacks and in displacement. iii iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I return all the glory and honour to the LORD God Almighty, the giver of life, wisdom, knowledge and understanding. I thank Him for the miraculous ways through which He brought me to New Zealand to undertake this PhD study. I also thank Him for the insights He gave me as I worked through this thesis, for His ever abiding presence in times of losses and gains, and for the people He placed in my life to support me from the beginning to the end. This research would have been impossible without the cooperation of the research participants, many of whom I am unable to mention. I am particularly humbled by the way most of them received and related to me like a sister. In addition to sharing their experiences with Boko Haram and displacement with me, they also shared practical lessons of life in order to support me in my own life’s journey. I am also thankful to Reverend Mancha Darong, the Director of Stefanos Foundation, Mr. Stephen (full name withheld) of National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), and all the officials at the Centre for Caring, Empowerment and Peace Initiative (CCEP), without whom it would have been impossible to gain access to the participants in Jos. I also appreciate the efforts of Mr. Aminu Yakubu, Professor Dora Akinboye, and Professor Grace Tayo in guiding me through the process of getting ethical clearance from the National Health Research Ethics Committee (NHREC), Nigeria. I will not fail to appreciate the kindness of Elder Dennis Njoku and his wife Deaconess Gloria Nwamara Njoku, and Mr. Smart Ogbonna and his wife Dr. Angela Ogbonna, for accommodating me in Jos and Abuja respectively and supporting me during the fieldwork. My appreciation also goes to my two amazing supervisors, Associate Professor Gillian Abel and Associate Professor Lee Thompson. I was taught as a pupil that a major key to academic success is loving and trusting your teachers. However, I have learnt by experience that for greater success and an exciting academic journey, teachers who love and believe in you are indispensable. I can simply describe my supervisors as two great women who loved and believed in me. They were exceptional and highly supportive in every aspect of this PhD journey. I must commend their courage in accepting to work with a novice qualitative researcher like myself, and staying committed to my success till the end. They were very timely and thorough in reading every draft I sent to them, v and I could always count on their criticisms to make my work better. I appreciate their magnanimity in sharing their books and other resources with me, and offering valuable insights that guided me at every step of this research. I also appreciate the fact that they were always available to read, listen to, and critique every presentation I made from this thesis. Such support enhanced the quality of the presentations, and inspired me with confidence to work harder. I am also grateful for all the support they gave me as an international student, which made my life a lot easier than it would have been. Finally, I will forever remain grateful for their support during my short-lived pregnancy and moments of grief. I had every reason to give up at the last minute because of my loss, but I was encouraged by my supervisors’ concern and consistent commitment to my work. This PhD study was fully sponsored by two institutions and some private individuals. I am grateful to the University of Otago administration for giving me the University of Otago Doctoral scholarship, without which I would not have dreamt of coming to New Zealand to study. I am also grateful to the Administration of Babcock University, for granting study leave with pay to my family, in order to support this PhD study. I am particularly grateful to the immediate past and current vice chancellors of Babcock University, as well as the Deputy Vice Chancellor, Professors James K. Makinde, Ademola S. Tayo and Iheanyichukwu Okoro. These men took a personal interest in my academic career, and ensured the timely approval of my applications and provided every document I needed for my travel and study. My gratitude also goes to Professor Luke Onuoha, former Vice President (financial administration), Babcock University, for encouraging me to move by faith in pursuit of my PhD; for guiding me through the process of obtaining study leave and sponsorship from Babcock University; and for sponsoring part of my travel expenses.