International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 2006, 19 , 282-296. Copyright 2006 by the International Society for Comparative Psychology Geographic Variation in a Spider’s Ability to Solve a Confinement Problem by Trial and Error Robert R. Jackson, Fiona R. Cross, and Chris M. Carter University of Canterbury, New Zealand Portia is a genus of web-invading araneophagic (spider eating) jumping spiders known from earlier studies to derive aggressive-mimicry signals by using a generate-and-test (trial and error) algorithm. We studied individuals of Portia labiata from two populations (Los Baños and Sagada) in the Philip- pines that have previously been shown to differ in the level to which they rely on trial-and-error deri- vation of signals for prey capture (Los Baños relied on trial and error more strongly than Sagada P . labiata ). Here we investigated P. labiata ’s use of trial and error in a novel situation (a confinement problem: how to escape from an island surrounded by water) that is unlikely to correspond closely to anything the spider would encounter in nature. During Experiment 1, spiders chose between two potential escape tactics (leap or swim), one of which was set at random to fail (brought spider no closer to edge of tray) and the other of which was set for partially succeeding (brought spider closer to edge of tray). By using trial and error, the Los Baños P. labiata solved the confinement problem significantly more often than the Sagada P. labiata in Experiment 1, both when the correct choices were positively reinforced (i.e., when the spider was moved closer to edge of tray) and when incor- rect choices were punished (i.e., when the spider got no closer to edge of tray). In Experiment 2, the test individual’s first choice was always set to fail, and P. labiata was given repeated opportunities to respond to feedback, yet the Sagada P. labiata continued to place little reliance on trial and error for solving the confinement problem. That the Los Baños P. labiata relied more strongly on trial-and- error problem solving than the Sagada P. labiata has now been demonstrated across two different tasks. Research in animal learning and cognition has focused mainly on using vertebrates as subjects, and the literature typically makes comparisons across large taxonomic groups (Basil, Kamil, Balda, & Fite, 1996; Beer, 1996; Jerison, 1973; Lashley, 1949; McPhail, 1985; Shettleworth, 2003). This research has strengthened our knowledge of cognitive and learning abilities, but the selective pressures that might influence the evolution of these abilities are still poorly understood (Dukas, 1998a; Shettleworth, 1993; Yoerg, 1991). The present paper is unconventional be- cause the animals studied are jumping spiders (Salticidae) instead of vertebrates, and because we consider geographic variation within a single species, Portia labi- ata (Thorell), in the ability to solve a confinement problem. Important questions remain unresolved concerning the extent to which an animal’s various cognitive abilities are single-purpose adaptations tailored for spe- cific functions (Kamil, 1998; McFarland & Bosser, 1993; Stephens, 1991). For example, how often and under what circumstances does the evolution of cognitive skills push animals across a threshold, enabling them to respond flexibly and adap- We thank Randolph Grace for his useful comments on the manuscript. Work in the Philippines was generously supported by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and we are especially grate- ful to Alberto T. Barrion, Kong Luen Heong, Kenneth Shoenly and Tom W. Mew for the numerous ways in which they supported the research and to the following IRRI staff for their assistance and active interest in the research: Elpie Hernandez, Errol Rico, Ruben Abuyo, Glicerio Javier, Jr, Josie Lynn Catindig and Clod Lapis. Field and laboratory work was supported by a grant from the Marsden Fund of the New Zealand Royal Society (UOC512). Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Robert R. Jackson, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand ([email protected]). - 283 - tively to problems outside the context in which these skills originally evolved (see Dennett, 1996)? Portia may provide especially interesting insights into these ques- tions. The eyes of most spiders lack the structural complexity required for acute vision (Homann, 1971; Land, 1985), but the level of resolution of salticid eyes has no known parallel in other animals of comparable size (Blest, O’Carroll, & Carter, 1990; Land, 1969a, 1969b, 1974). Almost 5,000 salticid species have been de- scribed (Coddington & Levi, 1991; Zabka, 1993), and most of these are cursorial hunters of insects (Richman & Jackson, 1992). Having intricate vision-controlled predatory behavior, most salticids neither build nor use webs for catching prey. Striking exceptions include tropical African, Asian and Australasian salticids in the genus Portia (Wanless, 1978). Predatory versatility is pronounced in Portia , ap- pearing to exceed that known for any other spiders (Jackson & Pollard, 1996). Be- sides capturing prey in the open, the species in this remarkable genus also spin prey-capture webs (Jackson, 1985), and they routinely invade alien webs where they capture their preferred prey, other spiders (Li & Jackson, 1996; Li, Jackson, & Barrion, 1997). Web-building spiders have only rudimentary eyesight (Land, 1985), but their webs are an important part of their sensory system (Foelix, 1996; Masters, Markl, & Moffat, 1986; Witt, 1975). To catch a web-building spider, Portia does not simply stalk or chase down its prey. Instead, Portia lures the spider over with aggressive-mimicry signals, by manipulating the silk with any combination of its eight legs and two palps (Jackson & Wilcox, 1998; Tarsitano, Jackson, & Kirchner, 2000). Portia has an almost limitless repertoire of signals because it can alter the sequences and vary the speed, amplitude and timing of movement of each appendage independently (Jackson & Blest, 1982; Jackson & Hallas, 1986a). By trial and error, Portia flexibly adjusts its signals in response to feed- back from its intended prey (Jackson & Wilcox, 1993), thereby appearing to gain dynamic fine control over the resident spider’s behavior (Jackson & Pollard, 1996). When using trial and error, Portia first presents the resident spider with a kaleidoscope of different signals. Once one of these signals elicits an appropriate response from the resident spider, Portia stops varying its signal output and repeats the particular signal that worked. When the prey spider stops responding appropri- ately, Portia goes back to generating a wide range of signals until once again it finds a signal that triggers a favourable response from the resident spider. Trial-and-error derivation of appropriate web signals is a “generate-and- test” algorithm (Simon, 1969) characterized by an exceptionally large generating capacity. This appears to be an example of flexible problem solving on a level not usually expected in spiders (Mitchell, 1986). Portia ’s intimate contact with its prey’s sensory system and the high level of risk entailed in attempting to gain dy- namic fine control over the behavior of another predator (Jackson, 1992a) may be especially important factors favoring the evolution of Portia ’s flexible problem- solving ability. Ecotypic variation (i.e., genetically based differences between populations) provides evidence in support of this hypothesis. Behavioral ecotypes were demonstrated in an earlier study (Jackson & Carter, 2001) in which individuals derived from two habitats (Los Baños and Sa- gada) in the Philippines were compared. Los Baños is a low-elevation tropical - 284 - rainforest site where prey (spider) diversity is especially high and where some prey types are especially dangerous (Jackson, Li, Fijn, & Barrion, 1998; Jackson, Pol- lard, Li, & Fijn, 2002), whereas Sagada is a high-elevation pine-forest site where prey (spider) diversity is considerably lower and the especially dangerous prey from Los Baños are absent. In laboratory experiments, individuals from both popu- lations used trial and error to derive appropriate aggressive-mimicry signals, but the Los Baños P. labiata relied on trial and error significantly more often than did the Sagada P. labiata . Maternal effects and variation in experience were ruled out as explanations for the findings in the study of ecotypes (Jackson & Carter, 2001) because all individuals tested were from laboratory rearing to second and third generation under standardized conditions. Here we consider the specificity of the cognitive attribute that varies be- tween the two populations of P. labiata . In particular, we compare the performance of individuals from the two populations when presented with a confinement prob- lem, a deliberately artificial situation (which involves crossing water and includes being helped or hindered in doing so) designed for solution by trial and error. Solv- ing this problem by trial and error has already been shown in another species of Portia ( P. fimbriata ) from another habitat (Queensland, Australia) (Jackson, Carter, & Tarsitano, 2001). Although Portia in nature might sometimes need to cross water, there is no evidence that crossing water is a routine occurrence and the manipulations Portia experienced in the confinement experiments (being helped forward or forced back) are almost surely alien to anything Portia might routinely