The challenges of reinvigorating democracy through visual art in 21st century Nairobi Craig Campbell Halliday 30 September 2019 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sainsbury Research Unit for the Arts of Africa, Oceania & the Americas School of Art, Media and American Studies University of East Anglia, Norwich This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived therefrom must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. 1 Abstract This study examines the potential for contemporary visual art to reinvigorate democracy in 21st century Nairobi, Kenya, through an interdisciplinary investigation. The new millennium ushered in fresh hope for democratisation in the postcolonial East African country. In 2002, Daniel arap Moi’s 24 years of authoritarian rule ended. The opposition were victorious at the ballot box, instilling a belief amongst the electorate that formal political processes could bring change. However, the post-election violence of 2007/8 shattered such convictions. But, from this election result came a progressive Constitution and with it possibilities for creating change. These momentous events underscore Kenya’s topsy-turvy path towards democracy – a path whose trajectory is charted in the experience of ordinary Kenyans who believe in democracy’s value and their right to participate in politics and civil life. Artists, too, have been at the forefront of this ongoing struggle. This study draws on empirical research to demonstrate contemporary visual art’s capacity to expand ways of practising, experiencing and understanding democracy. It does so through examining a range of art forms (painting, photography, installation art, graffiti, and ‘artivism’) in gallery type settings and public urban spaces. The research makes apparent the challenges artists face which include the commercialisation and donor-driven influences within Kenya’s artworld, moments of institutional censorship and State suppression of activist initiatives. Nevertheless, the methods and techniques discussed often enabled new means of political engagement, the construction of social and political consciousness, and the expansion and animation of Kenya’s public sphere. Outcomes of this research include the potential to empower artists and cultural workers with strong evidence to inform the use of art in finding solutions to local and global issues and in promoting liberal freedoms. It has implications for policy debates, emphasising the value of art in strategies for revitalising public participation in political and civic life. 2 Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 2 Contents................................................................................................................................................. 3 List of figures ......................................................................................................................................... 5 List of charts ........................................................................................................................................ 10 List of tables......................................................................................................................................... 11 List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 11 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................. 13 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 14 Why Nairobi?................................................................................................................................... 16 Research framework and research questions .............................................................................. 20 The research and literature context .............................................................................................. 28 How this research was conducted................................................................................................. 33 Thesis structure............................................................................................................................... 37 Chapter One: Characteristics of democracy in Kenya ................................................................ 39 Hopes and discontent following Kenya’s independence ............................................................. 41 Agitating for democracy in the face of authoritarianism ............................................................ 42 Once the euphoria settled ‘Nothing-Actually-Really-Changed’ .................................................. 45 Elections, violence and the brink of State failure ......................................................................... 48 A new Constitution and the dawn of Kenya’s second republic ................................................... 50 Prospects for democracy following Kenya’s 2013 election ......................................................... 51 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter Two: Fifty years of art and change ................................................................................. 58 Subversive murals during the Mau Mau uprising ........................................................................ 60 ‘Kenya, where are we going?’ ........................................................................................................ 63 State investment in visual art ........................................................................................................ 70 Art by and for the people ............................................................................................................... 75 Democracy on the march ............................................................................................................... 81 A new-found spirit of enthusiasm ................................................................................................. 88 Art in a time of social and political upheaval ................................................................................ 95 Healing the nation ........................................................................................................................ 101 Peace at what cost? ...................................................................................................................... 108 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter Three: Democratic aspirations and Nairobi’s art institutions ................................. 117 3 Conceptual exhibitions: Kuona Trust .......................................................................................... 119 Alternative art spaces: Maasai Mbili ........................................................................................... 128 The paradoxes of commercial galleries....................................................................................... 133 Foreign cultural centres and Nairobi National Museum ........................................................... 139 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 148 Chapter Four: Implications of the market, NGO patronage, and curatorial practices ...... 150 Playing to the market ................................................................................................................... 151 Development organisations and the arts .................................................................................... 159 A curatorial turn? .......................................................................................................................... 167 Curatorial activism ........................................................................................................................ 174 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 179 Chapter Five: Art and activism on the streets ........................................................................... 181 Art + activism = artivism ............................................................................................................... 182 Graffiti as an act of protest and rebellion ................................................................................... 184 Reflections on street protests in Nairobi .................................................................................... 190 Carnivalesque protests and their mediation .............................................................................. 195 The confines of laughter and mockery........................................................................................ 202 The humourless State ..................................................................................................................