NOTES INTRODUCTION 1. Editors' introduction, R. Swift and S. Gilley (eds), Irish in the Victorian City (London, 1985), p. 9. 2. The continued importance of the Irish in the post-Famine period is clearly announced in two fine essays by David Fitzpatrick: "'A peculiar tramping people": the Irish in Britain, 1801-70', and 'The Irish in Britain, 1871-1921', in W. E. Vaughan (ed.), A New History of Ireland, vol. V, Ireland Under the Union, I: I 80I-1870 (Oxford, 1986) and vol. VI, Ireland Under the Union, II: 1870-1921 (Oxford, 1996). 3. Fitzpatrick, 'Irish in Britain', correctly stresses the continuing 'apartness' of Irish settlers. 4. 0. Handlin, Boston's Immigrants (London, 1941) and The Uprooted: The Epic Study of the Great Migrants that Made the American People (Boston, 1951 ). The quotation is from the first page of the latter. 5. See W. F. Adams, Ireland and Irish Emigration to the New World from 1815 to the Famine (New Haven, 1932); T. F. Blegen, Norwegian Migration to America, 1820-1860 (Northfield, Carolina, 1931); M. L. Hansen, The Atlantic Migration, 1607-1860: A History of the Continuing Settlement of the United States (Cambridge, 1940). 6. As C. Holmes,John Bull's Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871-1971 (Basingstoke, 1987), amply attests. 7. C. 6 Grada, 'A note on nineteenth century Irish emigration statistics', Population Studies, 29 (1975). 8. E. Delaney, Demography, State and Society: Irish Migration to Britain, 1921- 1971 (Liverpool, forthcoming). 9. This is, though, the argument of Ruth-Ann Harris, The Nearest Place that Wasn't Ireland: Early Nineteenth-Century Labor Migration (Ames, Iowa, 1994). 10. D. Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish Migration to Australia (Cork, 1994), pp. 334-58. 11. Frank Neal, 'The famine Irish in England and Wales', in Patrick O'Sullivan (ed.), The Irish World-Wide, vol. VI, The Meaning of the Famine (Leicester, 1997), pp. 63-4. The Sullivans' harrowing story is recounted more fully in idem, Black '47: Britain and the Famine Irish (Basingstoke, 1997), pp. 51, 177-9. 12. These two phrases are employed by David Fitzpatrick to illustrate the cohesiveness as well as the variety of Irish lives in Britain: 'A curious 189 190 Notes middle place: the Irish in Britain, 1871-1921 ', in R. Swift and S. Gilley (eds), The Irish in Britain, 1815-1939 (London, 1989), and "'A peculiar tramping people"'. 13. Alan Mayne, The Imagined Slum: Newspaper Representations in Three Cities, 1870-1914 (Leicester, 1993), p. 1. 14. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 15. This point is compellingly argued by Lynn Hollen Lees, Exiles of Erin: Irish Migrants in Victorian London (New York and Manchester, 1979). 16. As well as being a brilliant reconstruction of imperial expansion and a shrewd examination of the world view oflrish colonisers, D. H. Akenson's If the Irish Ruled the World: Monserrat, 1630-1730 (Liverpool, 1997), also provides clear guidance on the range of identities which existed within Ireland and how these fared in the New World under Irish and other leadership. ECONOMY, POVERTY AND EMIGRATION 1. Problems abound with emigration data. See C. 6 Grada, 'A note on nineteenth-century Irish emigration statistics', Population Studies, 29 (1975). 2. See D. Fitzpatrick, Irish Emigration, 1801-1921 (Dublin, 1984); idem, 'Emigration, 1801-1870', in W. E. Vaughan (ed.), A New History of Ireland, vol. V, Ireland Under the Union, I: 1801-1870 (Oxford, 1986), pp. 562- 622; D. H. Akenson, Small Differences: Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants, 1815-1922 (Dublin, 1988), Appendix H, p. 182. 3. ·E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848-1875 (London, 1962), p. 196. 4. Marcus Lee Hansen, The Immigrant in American History (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1942), pp. 158-9. 5. See, for example, T. G. Fraser, 'Ireland and India', inK. Jeffrey (ed.), 'An Irish Empire'? Aspects of Ireland and the British Empire (Manchester, 1996). 6. Fitzpatrick, Irish Emigration, p. 7. 7. David Fitzpatrick, 'Emigration, 1870-1921', in W. E. Vaughan (ed.),A New History of Ireland, vol. VI, Ireland Under the Union, II: 1870-1921 (Oxford, 1996), pp. 612-13; C. 6 Grada, Ireland: A New Economic History, 1780-1939 (Oxford, 1994), pp. 225-8. For female migration, also see two essays by David Fitzpatrick: '"A share of the honeycomb": education, emigration and Irishwomen', Continuity and Change, 1 (1986), and 'The modernisation of the Irish female', in P. O'Flanagan, P. Ferguson and K. Whelan (eds), Rural Ireland, 1600-1900: Modernisation and Change (Cork, 1986). 8. While it would be wrong to compare historians today with the nationalists of yesterday, the language of 'exile' runs through much recent writing. See, for example, Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America (New York and Oxford, 1985), and L. H. Lees, Exiles of Erin: Irish Migrants in Victorian London (New York and Manchester, 1979). 9. Quoted in T. W. Freeman, Pre-Famine Ireland: a Study in Human Geography (Manchester, 1956), p. 38. Notes 191 10. Differing views are found in J. Mokyr and C. 6 Gnida, 'Emigration and poverty in pre-famine Ireland', Explorations in Economic History, 19 ( 1982), and S. Nicholas and P. R. Shergold, 'Human capital and the pre-famine Irish emigration to England', Explorations in Economic History, 24 ( 1987). 11. The best short introduction to this area is L. Kennedy and L. A. Clarkson, 'Birth, death and exile: Irish population history, 1700-1921 ', in B. J. Graham and L. J. Proudfoot (eds), An Historical Geography of Ireland (London, 1993 ). 12. K. T. Happen, Ireland Since 1800: Conflict and Conformity (London, 1989), PP· 35. 13. Ibid., p. 36. 14. W. F. Adams, Ireland and Irish Emigration to the New World from 1815 to the Famine (New Haven, 1932), ch. 1; R. Crotty, Irish Agricultural Production: Its Volume and Structure (Cork, 1966), ch. 2; J. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved: A Quantitative and Analytical History of the b"ish Economy, 1800-1850 (London, 1983). An excellent overview of the debate is 6 Grada, Ireland, especially chs 4-7. 15. L. M. Cullen, An Economic History of Ireland Since 1660 (London, 1993), ch. 5 (first published 1972), provides a trenchant account of this period of crisis. 16. S. H. Cousens, 'The regional variation in emigration from Ireland between 1821 and 1841', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 37(1965). 17. D. Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish Migration to Australia (Cork, 1994), pp. 14-15; Cousens, 'Emigration from Ireland', pp. 18-19. 18. Fitzpatrick, Irish Emigration, p. 11. 19. North American data in this paragraph are derived from two sources which are as reliable as can be obtained: Adams, Ireland and Irish Emigration, pp. 413-14; and W. E. Vaughan and A. J. Fitzpatrick, Irish Historical Statistics: Population 1821-1971 (Dublin, 1978), p. 259. 20. Arthur Young, A Tour in Ireland. With General Observations on the Present State of that Kingdom Made in the Hlars 1776, 1777 and 1778 (Cambridge, 1925), pp. 198-9. 21. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved, ch. 2. 22. 6 Gnida, Ireland, pp. 69-71. 23. T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (Cambridge, 1992), p. 15 (first published 1798). 24. See L. A. Clarkson and M. Crawford, 'Dietary directions: a topographical survey of Irish diet, 1836', in R. Mitchison and P. Roebuck (eds), Economy and Society in Ireland, 1500-1939 (Edinburgh, 1989). 25. B. M. Walsh, 'A perspective on Irish population patterns', Eire-Ireland, 4 (1969), p. 5. 26. Young, Tour in Ireland, p. 185. 27. The major work on the potato is P. M. A. Bourke, 'The Visitation of God': the Potato and the Great Irish Famine (Dublin, 1993 ). 28. Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population, p. 127. 29. Bourke, Visitation of God, pp. 36-7. 192 Notes 30. J. R. Donnelly, 'Excess mortality and emigration', in W. E. Vaughan (ed.), A New History of Ireland, vol. V, p. 352. 31. See B. M. Kerr, 'Irish seasonal migration to Great Britain, 1800-38', Irish Historical Studies, 3 (1942-3); J. H. Johnson, 'Harvest migration from nineteenth-century Ireland', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41 (1967); C. 6 Grada, 'Seasonal migration and post-Famine adjustment in the west of Ireland', Studia Hibernica, 13 (1973); A. O'Dowd, Spalpeens and Tatie Hokers: History and Folklore of the Irish Migratory Agricultural Worker in Ireland and Britain (Dublin, 1991); S. Barber, 'Irish migrant agricultural labourers in nineteenth century Lincolnshire', Saothar, 8 (1982). 32. Kerr, 'Irish seasonal migration', pp. 365-6. 33. Ibid., pp. 371, 377. 34. 6 Grada, 'Seasonal migration', pp. 50, 55-66. 35. Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved, p. 278. 36. L. A. Clarkson, 'Population change and urbanisation, 1821-1911 ', in L. Kennedy and P. Ollerenshaw (eds), An Economic History of Ulster, 1820- 1940 (Manchester, 1985 ). 37. Young, Tour in Ireland, p. 183. 38. Wakefield, quoted in C. 6 Grada, Ireland Before the Famine and After (Manchester, 1988), p. 14; H. D. Inglis, Ireland in 1834 (London, 1835), vol. I, pp. 11, 13. 39. J. G. Kohl, Ireland (London, 1844), p. 7. 40. D. Clark, The Irish in Philadelphia: Ten Generations of Urban Experience (Philadelphia, 1973), p. 25. 41. For Mill's Irish commentaries, see E. D. Steele, l S. Mill and the Irish question: the principles of political economy, 1848-1865', Historical journal, 13 (1970). For this, and the wider context of his attitude towards land, see D. E. Martin, john Stuart Mill and the Land Question (Hull, 1981). 42. Morning Chronicle, 7 October 1846. 43. Crotty, Irish Agricultural Production, ch. 2. 44. Young, Tour in Ireland, pp. 183-4. 45. Ibid., p. 187. 46. Kohl, Ireland, p. 23. 47.