SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY ”THERE IS NO ROYAL ROAD TO GEOMETRY” EUCLID BY KELLY LYNCH Saint Mary’s College of California Moraga 2016 Abstract The purpose of this paper is to derive various trigonometric formulas for spher- ical triangles. The subject of spherical trigonometry has many navigational and astro- nomical applications. History Geometry has been developing and evolving for many centuries. Its uses are vast and continue to affect our every day lives. The study of the sphere in particular has its own unique story, and has two major turning points. This study first began with the push of astronomy and was developed in depth by the Greeks. There is speculation that mathematical discoveries about the sphere were made as early as the second century, but there is no proof for this.[1] The major transition for the understanding of spherical geometry was the work of Menelaus of Alexandra. In his work Spherica the author delves deeply into the properties of the sphere and the calculations related to lengths and measures of a sphere’s arcs. For a long time the equations he discovered, such as the measure of circumference of a sphere and the measure of arc lengths, were accepted and no further study was needed. The next major motivation for learning spherical trigonometry was religious matters; the religion of Islam requires that the direction of Mecca is always known for daily prayer. Menelaus’ findings were further developed during the Islamic En- lightenment period. There is some debate as to the discovery of the Law of Sines for spherical triangles. Possible sources of this discovery stem from the debate over the two Muslim scientists, Abu¯ Nasr or Abu¯ ´l-Wafa’.¯ Who ever was responsible for the progress in the Law of Sines allowed for a more concise proof to be developed later; as well as leading to other theorems and identities on spherical trigonometry. Another major name in geometry is Euclid. He made a big impact later in the third century; though the system of spherical trigonometry does not incorporate parallel lines, Eu- clidean geometry gave some insight to spherical behavior. In his work Elements Euclid published equations which help lead us to the Pythagorean Theorem and the Law of Cosines. Though mathematicians brought insight to this area of study, many influences on spherical trigonometry also came from the field of science. Further discovery about the behavior of arcs and angles became prominent in the late Renaissance period. John Napier, a Scottish scientist who lived around the 17th century, was the first to work with right spherical triangles and the basic identities of these shapes. Using Napier’s Rules, the law of cosines for spheres was discovered.[1] Definition 0.0.1. On a sphere, a great circle is the intersection of the sphere with a plane passing though the center, or origin, of the sphere.[1] Example 0.0.2. Great Circle The solid line illustrates a great circle which is the intersection of the plane X and the sphere A. The plane in the 0.0.2 is the horizontal plane; however, the plane can have any orientation that bisects the sphere. The circle created by this intersection will have radius equal to the length of the radius of the sphere. It also follows that the length of the circumference of the great circle will equal 2πr where r is the length of the radius of the sphere. This is relevant because it enables us to calculate the length of a circular segment by considering the relation between the inner angle and the radius of the sphere. Therefore, for any sphere and any angle, the length of one arc segment will just equal rθ where θ is the measure of the angle in radians. This is true because each circular segment is just fraction of the entire circumference. We can show this relation of the angle and arc length in the example below. Example 0.0.3. General arc measure (where a is the length of the arc) This is a general example, but we can apply specific values as in the example on the following page. Example 0.0.4. Measure of Arc In this example we cut our a segment of great circle by relating an inner angle. For this example let R = 4:69 and θ = :93759 radians, thus (4:69)(:93759) = 4:39, which is the measure of the length of the arc. This example was created in a dynamic mathematics software program which gave these related measurements. The next definition required in understanding a spherical triangle is that of a lune. Definition 0.0.5. Lune A lune is a part of the sphere which is captured between two great circles.[1] This definition is relevant because it started the ability to capture shapes on a sphere. This definition itself is not extremely significant, but it is through this shape which we can form other shapes on the sphere. The shape of a lune can also be seen in the next figure. Example 0.0.6. Lune Spherical triangles can be defined in terms of lunes. Definition 0.0.7. Spherical Triangle A spherical triangle is the intersection of three distinct lunes.[1] In the figure above we can consider that there are two lunes which are the on opposite sides of the sphere, it is natural that another lune bisecting these two will be needed. A simpler way to think about a spherical triangle is the shape captured through the intersection of three great circles. It is also interesting to consider that any two unique points, which are not diametric on the spheres surface, lie on a great circle. This makes sense because a triangle would have three vertices and therefore three different great circles which go through two different points. Since the spherical triangle’s edges are curved, it is clear that the equations, sides, area, and general properties will be different from that of a planar triangle. We also know that in some way we should be able to relate the functions that we do discover to the radius of the sphere, because it seems natural that the formulas would change in relation to the sphere’s radius.We know that the behavior of a spherical triangle will be very different from the planar triangles, there are even some definitions which can illustrate this for us. Example 0.0.8. Spherical Triangle Definition 0.0.9. Spherical Excess is the amount by which the sum of the angles (in the spherical plane only) exceed 180◦. This definition tells us about the behavior of the sphere and its edges. We know that the length of the edges on a spherical triangle will be greater the edges on a corre- sponding planar triangle, since they are curved. This definition allows for a spherical triangle to have multiple right angles. Example 0.0.10. Spherical triangle with three right angles Definition 0.0.11. [3] Spherical Coordinates is a coordinate system in three dimentions. The coordinate values stated below require r to be the length of the radius to the point P on the sphere. The value ' the angle between the z-axis, and the vector from the origin to point P , and θ the angle between the x-axis, and the same vector as in the figure 0.0.12. Then we can say the x; y; z coordinates are defined: (r cos(θ)sin('); r sin(θ)sin('); r cos(')) Example 0.0.12. Spherical Coordinates in the xyz plane Theorem 0.0.13. The Spherical Pythagorean Theorem[3] For a right triangle, ABC on a sphere of radius r, with right angle at vertex C and sides length a; b; c is defined: c a b cos = cos · cos r r r This equation can equivalently be written as cos(c) = cos(a)cos(b) when the radius is 1. Proof. Consider a spherical triangle on the surface of a sphere with radius r, and sides a; b; c. Let vertex C in the spherical triangle be a right angle, as in the diagram below.[3] Without loss of generality, suppose C is defined by spherical coordinates C = (0; 0; r). Now consider the other vertices on the spherical triangle. Call one of these A and let b b it be defined using spherical coordinates defined above A = (r sin r ; 0; r cos r ) where b is equal to the measure of the arc length along the great circle between A and b C. Note r is necessarily also equal the interior angle between the vector which goes from the O to C and the vector from O to A, since the radius is equal to r. Let the a a other vertex called B be defined B = (0; r sin r ; r cos r ) where a is the arc length ~ b b between B to C, by the same reasoning. Thus A = r sin r x^ + r cos r z^ and ~ a a ~ ~ B = r sin r y^ + r cos r z^. Now consider A · B b b a a A~ · B~ = (r sin x^ + r cos z^ · r sin y^ + r cos z^ r r r r b a = r2 cos cos r r ~ ~ 2 b a Thereforesince the dot product of two vectors results in a scalar then A·B = r cos r cos r . Now consider the magnitude of jA~ · B~ j. Consider c jA~ · B~ j = jjAjjBjjcos r jA~j = r since the radius is r jB~ j = r since the radius is r c jA~ · B~ j = r2 cos r Recall that the cosine of the angle between two vectors is just equal to the dot product of each vector, over the magnitude of each vector.