NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY Enlightened Pursuits: Science and Civic Culture in Anglo-America, 1730-1760 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Field of History By Michael B. Guenther EVANSTON, ILLINOIS December 2008 2 Copyright by Michael B. Guenther, 2008 All Rights Reserved 3 ABSTRACT Enlightened Pursuits: Science and Civic Culture in Anglo-America, 1730-1760 Michael B. Guenther This study explores how the world of popular science helped forge a new civic culture during the tumultuous decades of the mid-eighteenth century. I trace the activities of a wide cast of characters in both England and America, revealing the contours of a tightly knit community of scientists, merchants, doctors, landed gentlemen, ministers, craftsmen, and entrepreneurs, whose collaboration in scientific projects made “improvement” a cultural imperative of the age. By the 1740s, I argue, the realm of science-based improvement had emerged as a critical meeting ground for those who sought to bring greater cohesion and prosperity to the British empire at a time when society appeared to be splintering into religious and political factions. Over the course of several decades, these campaigns to promote useful knowledge carved out new civic arenas in which individuals could translate abstract notions of patriotism, collaboration, and self-improvement into a program of concerted action. My dissertation examines how popular science became, in many respects, an alternative to traditional politics—a new way of pursuing the public good that revolved around experimentation and the diffusion of useful knowledge, voluntary associations and networks of exchange, sociability and mutual improvement, 4 patriotism and projects. And I investigate how this mindset led to the formation of agricultural clubs, botanical gardens, hospitals, philosophical societies, and a host of practical projects that encouraged scientific exchange and experimentation as a way of fostering both moral and material progress. The associational world of science offered opportunities to bring diverse groups together, to encourage new modes of civic action that could heal the fractured nature of society while advancing such important fields as agriculture, manufacturing, navigation, transportation, and public health. This study explores, then, how these wide ranging activities formed the basis of a new civic culture that transformed key dimensions of public life on both sides of the Atlantic. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “History,” Richard White once mused, “has seemed less and less about things or ideas or individual persons and more and more about relationships.” It is this complex web of connections, he emphasized, that define the texture of life in particular moments of the past. I have often thought about this conception of history over the past several years, as I explored the personal ties and social networks that defined the world of popular science in the eighteenth-century. And I have also been keenly aware of how much my own project owes to the extensive web of people and organizations whose support has made this dissertation possible. Whether they expected to or not, many have found themselves tied to this project in countless ways—reading drafts, answering questions, offering ideas and suggestions, listening to complaints, giving encouragement, steering me away from potential pitfalls, and providing the necessary material and logistical support. Without this constant help—my own network of sustaining ties—I would never have completed this dissertation. I will always be grateful for these relationships. In terms of institutional support, Northwestern has provided generous funding over the years in the form of fellowships, research grants, tuition waivers, and the like. I am particularly thankful to the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, and the donors of the Thomas G. and Mary Ayers Dissertation Fellowship, whose generous support allowed for an unencumbered year of writing. I would also like to thank the Andrew W. 6 Mellon Foundation, the Society of the Cincinnati, and the Daughters of the American Revolution, all of whom provided financial support at earlier stages of the project. For the past two years, Grinnell College has provided a supportive atmosphere as I worked to finish the dissertation; and I have come to rely heavily on the generosity and encouragement of my colleagues in the History Department. While graduate school can be a trying experience at times, I was lucky enough to find my way into a remarkable community of graduate students at Northwestern who made life enjoyable, both inside and outside the classroom. Pat Griffin, a fellow colonialist, was the first person I ever met in Chicago. And he taught me more about the profession in the two years that he was in Evanston than he will probably ever realize. In a similar vein, I had the good fortune to spend my first two years in the company of Chris Beneke, Jim Brennan, Karen O’Brien, Sean Fields, Chris Front, and Karen Leroux—all of whom helped guide me through the sometimes rough process of adjusting to the demands of coursework, teaching, and research. Over the years, I developed friendships with an amazing group of colleagues in the History department who made academic life intellectually engaging and fun. I’ll always appreciate the wit and good humor of Mark Jurdjevic, Caitlin Tillman, Chris Hodson, Tom Hajkowski, Chris Rogers, Amy Whipple, Frank Rzeczkowski, Guy Ortolano, Dave Collins, Michael Allen, Owen Stanwood, Jarod Roll, Rhiannon Stephens, Krzystof Kozubski, Erik Gellman, Debs Cane, Katie Burns- Howard, and Neil Kodesh. I also appreciate the support, advice and inspiration provided by a number of my professors, who helped nurture my growth as a historian. As an undergraduate at the University of Virginia, Peter Onuf and Allan Megill sparked my interests in history and 7 served as kind mentors, without whom, I would have never pursued a career in the profession. At Northwestern, I had the pleasure of working closely with Sarah Maza and Ed Muir, two scholars who agreed to direct my study and field exam in Early Modern Europe, but ended up teaching me far more about the complexities of history— particularly cultural history—than one could expect to learn in just a few semesters. My dissertation committee has provided unceasing support and encouragement over the past six years. As I worked to formulate the project, I benefited from the advice of Ethan Shagan, who offered helpful suggestions throughout the process. When he left Northwestern, I was fortunate enough to have Josef Barton join my committee. And despite his numerous commitments, Joe was kind enough to participate with enthusiasm and engaging feedback. I look forward to incorporating more of his suggestions into the manuscript in the future. Without Ken Alder’s support and wise council, this project would not have been possible. The decision to pursue a topic in the history of science came after I had finished my coursework; and Ken generously agreed to guide me through the conceptual and historiographical terrain of the field. He has an impressive ability to see both the “big picture” and the intricacies of detail, making him a wonderful resource for someone wrestling with the challenges of constructing a cohesive interpretive argument. Finally, and most importantly, T.H. Breen has served as a supportive mentor and advisor for the past decade, offering constant encouragement at each step of the process. I had chosen Northwestern for graduate school because I admired Tim’s scholarship, but it was only when I arrived that I realized the fortuity of my decision. His commitment to intellectual rigor, his passion for the craft of history, and his dedication to graduate training are a source of constant inspiration. And while I 8 suspect that there is little I can do to repay my enormous debt of gratitude for his boundless generosity, support, and friendship, I know that he will be pleased to see this dissertation finally completed (even with its glaring flaws and numerous “to be” verbs). If it “takes a village to raise a child”, then it certainly takes an equally supportive web of family and kin to raise a dissertator. Over the years, I came to rely on the support of many relatives and family friends, not the least of whom were Bev, Ned, and Marnie Prevost, my in-laws, whose enthusiastic backing certainly helped bring this dissertation to a successful close. Above all, I am thankful to my parents, Ben and Arlene, and my brother, Lew, for always providing encouragement during this arduous process. They have also demonstrated considerable patience over the years, putting up with numerous absences during holidays, birthdays, and the like. Yet, my deepest debt of gratitude is to my wife, Elizabeth, whose unwavering love and support made this project not only possible, but worthwhile. It is difficult to summon the words to express my feelings of appreciation for how she has enriched my life. I certainly see the world differently because of her. And only she will be able to appreciate the myriad ways that this dissertation, and my larger journey as a historian, are indebted to her. If relationships really determine the texture of life and the shape of history, as Richard White suggested, than there can be little doubt that our relationship lies at the heart of my personal story—it provides meaning and purpose to everything I do. 9 CONTENTS ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………… 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………… 5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………………………………………………….. 11 CHAPTERS: 1. INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE AND CIVISM…………………….…..... 13 IIN THE AGE OF IMPROVEMENT 2. RECONFIGURING PUBLIC LIFE: SCIENCE AND THE CIVIC CULTURE OF IMPROVEMENT IN BRITAIN………………... 34 2.1 The Virtues of Scientific Life: Civility, Collaboration, and the “New Philosophy” 2.2 Improving Spaces: The Organization of Public Science 2.3 Natural Philosophy and the Providential World 2.4 Science, Projects, and the New Social Order 3.