UMBRIA FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE AUGUSTAN ERA PhD Guy Jolyon Bradley University College London BieC ILONOIK.] ProQuest Number: 10055445 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10055445 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract This thesis compares Umbria before and after the Roman conquest in order to assess the impact of the imposition of Roman control over this area of central Italy. There are four sections specifically on Umbria and two more general chapters of introduction and conclusion. The introductory chapter examines the most important issues for the history of the Italian regions in this period and the extent to which they are relevant to Umbria, given the type of evidence that survives. The chapter focuses on the concept of state formation, and the information about it provided by evidence for urbanisation, coinage, and the creation of treaties. The second chapter looks at the archaeological and other available evidence for the history of Umbria before the Roman conquest, and maps the beginnings of the formation of the state through the growth in social complexity, urbanisation and the emergence of cult places. The third chapter is concerned with the Roman conquest and colonisation of this region; subjects covered include the progress of the conquest itself and the light this sheds on the pre-Roman organisation of the region, the confiscation and colonisation of land that followed the conquest, and the formation of alliances with the peoples living in Umbria. The period after the Roman conquest until the age of Augustus is divided into two chapters, covering changes in culture and the levels of urbanism and state organisation, as well as the extent to which this is due to a process of 'Romanisation'. The concluding chapter summarises the results of the work on Umbria and compares the situation in neighbouring Picenum and in other regions. This new picture of the formation of the state, which I argue was earlier and more gradual than has been previously thought, requires a revised assessment of the impact of the Roman conquest on this part of central Italy. Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to Michael Crawford, to whose encouragement, patience and inspirational teaching I owe an enormous debt. Tim Cornell and Emmanuele Curti have read substantial sections of this thesis and have provided extremely valuable comments. I am also grateful to Christopher Smith for his stimulating thoughts on sanctuaries and states; and to John North for benign general management and a greater influence on the direction of this thesis than he probably knows. The British Academy, the British School at Rome and the Graduate School at University College London have all provided essential financial assistance. I thank the Universities of Reading and Cardiff for the chance to continue this work (special thanks to Tessa Rajak, Ray Laurence and Valerie Hope at Reading; and to Nick Fisher, Kate Gilliver, and Louis Rawlings at Cardiff). I must also thank the library staff of the Institute of Classical Studies. I thank my parents, who provided lots of encouragement, as well as financial support; Jennifer Stewart for her great help in the crucial last weeks; all the Ancient History postgraduates at UCL; and the occupants of 72 Downham Road. Finally, thanks to Fay, without whom this thesis would never have been started, or finished. Table of Contents UMBRIA FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE AUGUSTAN ERA Abstract 1 Acknowledgments 2 List of Maps, Plans and Figures 7 Key to Maps, Plans and Figures 8 List of Abbreviations 12 1. THEORIES AND PROBLEMS; A METHODOLOGY FOR THE REGIONAL HISTORY OF ITALY IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 1. Introduction 14 2. The Development of States 16 (a) Conceptions of the 'state' 18 (b) The Process of State Development 23 (i) Group Definition 23 (ii) Central Authority 24 3. Urbanisation 26 (a) Urbanisation and State Formation 26 (b) The Diversity of Urbanism and its Definition 29 (c) Summary 32 4. Weights and Measures, and Coinage 33 5. Treaties 35 6. Conclusion 37 2. UMBRIA BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST 1. Ethnicity 39 (a) Umbrian Ethnic Identity 41 (b) Characteristics of the Image of the Umbrians in the Pre-Conquest Period 42 2. Geography 47 3. Patterns of Settlement 50 (a) Pagi and Vici 50 (i) Colfiorito (Plestia) 54 (ii) Monteleone di Spoleto 56 (iii) Gualdo Tadino (Tadinum) 56 (b) Early Settlement Sites in Sub-Appennine Areas 57 (i) Otricoli (Ocriculum) 57 (ii) Amelia (Ameria) 58 (iii) Terni (Interamna Nahars) 60 (iv) Todi (Tuder) 61 (v) Spoleto (Spoletium) 64 (vi) Bevagna (Mevania) 65 (vii) Spello (Hispellum) 66 (viii) Civitella d'Amo (Arna) and Bettona (Vettona) 67 (ix) Assisi (Asisium) 68 (x) Gubbio (Iguvium) 69 (xi) Rimini (Ariminum) 71 (xii) Other Sites 71 (c) Summary 72 4. Sanctuaries 73 (a) Sources 73 (b) The Evidence 75 (c) Sanctuaries and Settlement 80 (d) Sanctuaries and the 'State' 81 5. Conclusion 83 3. THE ROMAN CONQUEST AND COLONISATION OF UMBRIA 1. Sources 86 2. The Roman Conquest 87 Summary 94 3. Treaties and Umbrian Unity 95 4. Colonisation 99 5. The Extension of the Roman State in Umbria 106 (a) Introduction 106 (b) Plestia 108 (c) Fulginiae 110 (d) Promotion from Citizenship Without the Vote to Full Citizenship 111 6. The Telamon Campaign and the Hannibalic War 112 7. Conclusion 117 4. UMBRIA IN THE THIRD AND SECOND CENTURIES BC 1. Sources 120 2. Monumental Building: the Evidence of Architectural Terracottas and Temple Podia 122 3. Fortifications 127 4. Other Types of Building Activity 130 5. Urbanisation: A Summary 131 6. Rural Sanctuaries 132 7. Political Organisation 137 8. Weights and Measures 140 9. Epigraphy and Literacy 142 10. Conclusion 144 5. ROMANISATION, THE SOCIAL WAR AND INTEGRATION INTO THE ROMAN STATE 1. Introduction: the Concept of Romanisation 145 2. The Influences on Umbria in the Third and Second Centuries BC 147 3. The Spread of Latin 153 4. Participation in the Social War 161 5. Municipalisation 164 6. Rural Sanctuaries 167 7. Rural Settlement 168 8. Local Elites from the Social War to the Death of Augustus 171 6. UMBRIA IN ITALY: SOME COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Introduction 175 2. The Pattern of Settlement 175 3. Ethnicity 180 4. Political Organisation 181 5. The Third to First Centuries BC 185 6. Conclusion 190 APPENDICES 191 1. Architectural Terracottas and Temple Podia in Umbria in the First Millennium BC 192 2. Umbrian Inscriptions 200 3. Latin Inscriptions Certainly or Probably Before the Social War 209 4. Firmly-attested Treaties formed by Rome during the Conquest of Italy 338-264 BC 213 BIBLIOGRAPHY 214 LIST OF MAPS, PLANS AND FIGURES (in the pocket at the end) Maps 1. Central Italy in the First Century BC 2. The Political Statuses of Communities in Northern Central Italy (91 BC) 3. Provenances of Umbrian Type Bronze Votives in Northern Central Italy 4. Evidence of Sanctuaries and Temples in the Western Part of Umbria Plans 1. Amelia Figures 1. Graph of the Surviving Evidence for Monumental Buildings in Umbria in the First Millennium BC. KEY TO MAPS, PLANS AND FIGURES Map 1: Central Italy in the First Century BC Notes: 1) Asisium and Perusia are transposed. 2) Plestia (modern Colfiorito) is not marked; it lies between Forum Flaminii and Camerinum. Source: N. Hammond, Atlas of the Greek and Roman World in Antiquity (New Jersey, 1981) Map 2: The Political Statuses of Communities in Northern Central Italy (91 BC) Key: Coastguard colonies of Roman citizens are shown thus: Castrum Novum (c.R.) O Roman citizens optimo iure ED Latin colonies □ Un-annexed Prisci Latini and Hernici ED ether allies of Rome Boundaries Roads Notes: 1) The status of Interamna should, in my opinion, be changed to that of a Latin colony. 2) Nuceria was probably an allied community before the Social War. 3) The size of the territory attributed to many of the cities should be treated with caution. 4) Carsulae and Trebiae may not have existed as full administrative centres at this period (91 BC). 5) The branch of the Via Flaminia from Narnia, through Interamnia and Spoletium to Forum Flaminii, which probably existed at this date, is not marked. Source: A. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy (Cxford, 1965) Map 3: Provenances of Umbrian Type Bronze Votives Key: O Isolated and small finds H Numerous finds (medium and large deposits) 9 Museums holding statuettes of probable local or regional provenance Source: G. Colonna, Bronzi votivi umbro-sabellici a figura umana 1. Periodo 'arcaico' (Florence, 1970) Map 4: Sanctuaries and Temples in Umbria. 600-100 BC Source: P. Fontaine, Cités et Enceintes de L'Ombrie Antique (Brussels-Rome, 1990) Maps 3 and 4: Key to Sites Listed 1 Spilamberto 35 Amelia 2 Zola Predosa 36 Gesi 3 Bologna 37 Gaivi dell'Umbria (M. 8. Pancrazio) 4 Gastello di Serravalle 38 Novilara 5 Marzabotto 39 Isola di Fano 6 Grizzana (Monteguragazza) 40 Orciano 7 Rimini 41 Gastelleone di Suasa 8 Firenzuola 42 Gagli 9 Ponte a Moriano 43 Arcevia (Montefortino) 10 Fiesole 44 Gastelbellino 11 Stia (Falterona) 45 Staffolo 12 Impruneta 46 S.