UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, MERCED The White Cloud Movement: Local Activism and Buddhist Printing in China under Mongol Rule (1276-1368 CE) A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in World Cultures by Kaiqi Hua Committee in charge: Professor Ruth Mostern, chair, UC Merced Professor Sholeh Quinn, UC Merced Professor Lewis Lancaster, UC Berkeley Professor Richard Davis, Lingnan University © Kaiqi Hua, 2016 All rights reserved The Dissertation of Kaiqi Hua is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: _______________________________________________________________________ Lewis Lancaster _______________________________________________________________________ Sholeh Quinn _______________________________________________________________________ Richard Davis _______________________________________________________________________ Ruth Mostern, Chair University of California, Merced 2016 iii For my parents Qiu Lijuan 裘麗娟 & Hua Gang 華崗 iv Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ viii Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................................................. x Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................... xiv Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................ xx Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 The White Cloud sect...................................................................................................... 3 Religious syncretism in Song-Yuan China ................................................................... 11 Geography, ecology, and economy ............................................................................... 16 Sources .......................................................................................................................... 21 Chapter outline .............................................................................................................. 30 PART I: Formalizing the Unfamiliar ........................................................................................................ 36 Chapter 1. Eating Vegetables and Serving Devils: The Prehistory of the White Cloud Movement ........................................................................................................................................................ 36 “Eating vegetables and serving devils” 吃菜事魔........................................................ 45 Beliefs and categories ................................................................................................... 48 Activities and official persecution ................................................................................ 51 “People of the way” - daomin 道民 .............................................................................. 55 The “White Cloud monk” ............................................................................................. 67 Rebirth when the Mongols came .................................................................................. 80 Conclusion: from Baiyun cai to Baiyun zong ............................................................... 82 Chapter 2. Gathering People and Making Profits: The History of the White Cloud Movement ........................................................................................................................................................ 86 The Yuan religious bureaucracy and organizational structure ..................................... 88 Shizu’s 世祖 reign (1276-1294) ................................................................................... 96 Chengzong’s 成宗 reign (1294-1307) ....................................................................... 105 Wuzong’s 武宗 reign (1307-1311) ............................................................................. 117 Renzong’s 仁宗 reign (1311-1320) ............................................................................ 119 Yingzong’s 英宗 reign (1320-1323) ........................................................................... 133 The Late Yuan (1323-1368) ........................................................................................ 140 v Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 145 PART II: Networking through the Buddhist Canon ............................................................................ 151 Chapter 3. Monks and Statesmen ............................................................................................................ 151 The Puning canon (1277-1290) .................................................................................. 155 The Hexi canon (1293-1321) ...................................................................................... 170 Wholesale Buyers of the Puning Canon ..................................................................... 184 Li Huiyue: An Enthusiastic Tangut Patron of Chinese Canons in Jiangnan .............. 190 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 197 Chapter 4. Local Canon Patrons .............................................................................................................. 218 Donor and temple ........................................................................................................ 224 Donation ...................................................................................................................... 231 Wish ............................................................................................................................ 234 Location ...................................................................................................................... 240 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 252 PART III: The Mix of the “Three Teachings” ...................................................................................... 257 Chapter 5. Being a Gentleman of the Three Teachings: The Writings of the “White Cloud Monk” ................................................................................................................................................ 257 “Collection of Virtuous Acts” Zhengxing ji 正行集 ..................................... 262 “Record for Apprentice” Chuxue ji 初學記 ................................................................ 282 Tangut texts mentioned the “White Cloud monk” ...................................................... 294 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 303 Chapter 6. Grottos of the Southern Hill ................................................................................................. 313 Grotto descriptions ...................................................................................................... 316 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 328 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 345 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................. 360 vi List of Tables Table 1: Timeline of Kong Qingjue’s life (1043-1121) ................................................... 76 Table 2: Structure of bureaucratic systems (civil and religious affairs) in the Yuan Dynasty ............................................................................................................................. 98 Table 3: Brief timeline of the offices related to the White Cloud sect .......................... 100 Table 4: Printing of the Tangut Hexi canon in Hangzhou ............................................. 179 Table 5: Distribution of the Puning canon local donors ................................................ 240 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Puning Monastery and Wanshou Monastery .................................................. 150 Figure 2: Phags-pa transliteration of Sanskrit mantras in the Puning canon ................. 201 Figure 3: Collating scene at the Wanshou Monastery ................................................... 202 Figure 4: Collating scene at the Wanshou Monastery (part) ......................................... 203 Figure 5: Translating scene in Xi Xia 西夏譯經圖 ....................................................... 204 Figure 6: Translating scene in Xi Xia 西夏譯經圖 (part) ............................................. 205 Figure 7: Guoqu zhuangyanjie qianfo mingjing 過去莊嚴劫千佛名經 (hereafter Guoqu), vow statement