DOI 10.26773/smj.200601 REVIEW PAPER The Difference between Male and Female Sport Participation in Turkey: “Determination Always Finds a Way” Meltem Ince Yenilmez1 and Onur Burak Celik2 1Yasar University, Department of Economics, Izmir, Turkey, 2University of Hartford, Department of Economics, Finance and Insurance, Hartford, Connecticut (United States) Abstract The fight for gender equality throughout the world should be acknowledged and properly represented in society. This is all the more important in the sporting world with a further emphasis on the everyday Turkish woman. The rapid rise in female participation in sport in Turkey over the last ten years indicates a rise in the status of women in sport as well as several other areas. However, it should be acknowledged that there is a clear gap with regards to how men and women participate in sport. The varying physical composition of women in comparison to their male counterparts and also the varying level of expectations society places on both male and female participation in sport limits the level of success women derive from actively participating in sport activities. This paper will examine the origin, concepts, and historical background of women in sport in Turkey. At the same time, it will evaluate the current situation while also taking into consideration future developments relating to female participation, leadership, and sport media. Keywords: sport, women, female athletes, gender discrimination Introduction sport and physical activities in several groups, although there With the evolution of technology worldwide, the phrase is scant literature that has discussed the problems that influ- “the world is a global village” seems to be casually mentioned ence female involvement in sporting activities. This paper will quite often. Just like different work environments, the areas examine the challenges and opportunities for female partici- of sport and physical education have become an internation- pation in sport in Turkey. al phenomenon. There seems to be an interaction between In times past, sport was mainly a male-dominated world, people from different walks of life, ethnicities, religions, cul- and women were considered outsiders to it. Initially, women tures, and lifestyles to mention a few factors (Edginton, Chin, were perceived to be the other sex; they were not the main Geadelmann, & Ahrabi-Fard). As a result of the rising number insiders and were mainly considered to be latecomers or of different working environments, there is a need for sport “newbies” who were only given permission to participate in professionals and physical education experts to compre- friendly games or sports. This belief that women were only hend and assimilate how social and cultural factors of vary- suitable to partake in certain kinds of sport was prevalent for ing groups and nationalities influence the physical activities several years, while men were allowed to take part in specific of participants. Several schools of thought have carried out games and sports. For instance, it has always been perceived studies about the reasons that promote female involvement in that women are more suited to gymnastics and dancing while Correspondence: M. Ince-Yenilmez Yasar University, Department of Economics, Agacli Yol No:35-37, 35320 Bornova/Izmir, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] Sport Mont 18 (2020) 2: 107–112 107 DETERMINATION ALWAYS FINDS A WAY | M. I. YENILMEZ & O. B. CELIK men were footballers. This assumption has held sway from game in contrast with men. This prompts a lack of interest and the early 19th century and was based not only on gender dif- moral support for girls. ferences and convictions but also on scientific knowledge. Famous philosopher Buytendijk in 1953 discussed female Interest in Women Global Sport football, referencing it as “a game is essentially a demonstra- In Turkey, as a mainstream Muslim nation, women have tion of masculinity as we understand it from our traditional a cutting edge, contemporary way of life but, in contrast, are view of things and as produced in part by our physical consti- attached to their conventions and traditions. Despite the fact tution (through hormonal irritation). No one has ever been that the sport world in Turkey is empowered and upheld by successful in getting women to play football” (Pfister, 2006). the state through the Directorate General of Youth and Sports The situation in Turkey is almost the same. Therefore, (DGYS), the Turkish Football Federation, and sport clubs, the this paper tries to present the initial zoning of women in gap between the offices and number of sports accommodating Turkey according to their involvement in sport. Turkey male and female athletes is entirely apparent. This is because possesses a special position with regards to geography; this women and girls have to accept the invisible and unwritten is all the more evident as it shares a common history with rules of the society which separates them off from men whose some Islamic countries. Its distinct features include its mod- level of education and socioeconomic status are different. The ernisation movement and also its secular system, especially families' perspective is also a significant factor influencing with regards to the development of women’s liberation. The girls' sports. In the previous two decades, there has been an evolving roles of women, their behavioural pattern, and ac- expansion in interest among women and girls in competitive tivities has provided Turkish women with new opportuni- and recreational sports. ties and also plays a significant role in female representation As indicated by the Turkish Civil Law that was first given in in Turkey. 1926 soon after the Turkish Republic was established, "people As a result, the involvement of women in public life, in ad- [have] equivalent rights in all parts of life" (The Constitution dition to their involvement in sport, reflects the evolution of of Republic of Turkey, 2010). Subsequently, women had equal the young country. The goal of this research is to examine the opportunities as men in education, in the workplace, and in different roles women have to play in reforming the Turkish family life, and they additionally had similar rights regard- government, with emphasis on explaining the relationship ing their children and their training. In 2001, a few changes between sport and politics as a means of modernization. were made to the Turkish Civil Law to give better security to Conversely, if one does not fully grasp the socio-cultural com- women and children. As indicated by these changes, the head position of Turkey, one will not be able to comprehensively of the family is not the father (as determined previously), but grasp the factors that are in play with regards to female repre- rather both father and mother have equivalent rights to settle sentation in sport in Turkey. on family issues. Despite the fact that this has been written in the law, the The Involvement of Women in Turkish sport patriarchal way of life still dominates in the eastern and rural The Turkish National Physical Education Curriculum has parts of the nation, where the training level is lower, In specific been applied in schools since 2007; the programme is standard locales, men still settle on the choices with respect to fami- for all free and tuition-based schools. This new educational ly issues independent from anyone else, since they hold the plan changed the concentration from customary sport-based power, and the women do their job of dealing with the family exercises (e.g., gymnastics, Olympic-style events, and wres- unit and children. This originates from conventions and tradi- tling), to physical exercises that improve everyday health (e.g. tions that we accept could be decreased as the instruction level dance, games and open-air activities). It has two fundamental of the two sexes increments. A similar circumstance can be learning zones: development information and abilities. found in sport opportunities for women, which are not at all The previous physical training project is, by and large, still homogeneous in all parts of the country either. Furthermore, utilised in numerous schools. Indeed, even as the national PE social and religious desires may urge women and girls to prac- rules are standard for all schools, there are significant devia- tice sport with a scarf covering the hair and with specific types tions related to the execution of these rules. Physical instruc- of clothing rather than customary sport uniforms, especially tion is obligatory in all schools from ages 6-18 years; prima- in the schools and in the legislative zones open to the gen- ry schools are relied upon to seek to give one-hour physical eral population. Be that as it may, private focuses, clubs, and training every week for the grades and two hours for sixth open regions now and again enable women to practice sport grades. There are no distinctions for young girls and boys as in any way they wish. These distinctions are related to the so- far as physical instruction exercises and condition. As per cial variety of the nation. The study of Hosper, Nierkens, van the principle of Turkish Secularism, coeducation in PE is a Valkengoed, and Stronks (2008) with respect to the impact of standard for all evaluations. Be that as it may, in many, par- cultural assimilation on game interest among youthful Turkish ticularly in non-public schools, boys and girls are separated and Moroccan women in the Netherlands revealed that cul- in 6-8 grade. The most popular sports all through school for tural assimilation had a positive impact among Turkish wom- boys are soccer, basketball, and wrestling; for the girls, they en, yet not among Moroccan women. Their discoveries sug- are volleyball, aerobatics, and badminton. Schools are the key gest that socially explicit attitudes among Turkish women were institute in giving physical instruction to every single child powerful at expanding their cooperation in sport.