Chapter 4 Alternative Centres of Power OVERVIEW After the end of the bipolar structure of world politics in the early 1990s, it became clear that alternative centres of political and economic power could limit America’s dominance. Thus, in Europe, the European Union (EU) and, in Asia, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), have emerged as forces to reckon with. While evolving regional solutions to their historical enmities and weaknesses, both the EU and the ASEAN have developed alternative institutions and conventions that build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order and have transformed the countries in the region into prosperous economies. The economic rise of China has made The two images here represent two phases of the history of a dramatic impact on world China. The red poster – “The Socialist Road is the Broadest of politics. In this chapter, we take a All” – represents the ideology that guided China during its look at some of these emerging early phase after the Revolution. The photograph below is alternative centres of power and that of the city of Shanghai, the symbol of China’s new economic power. assess their possible role in the future. 2018-19 52 Contemporary World Politics EUROPEAN UNION (OEEC) was established in 1948 to channel aid to the west As the Second World War came to European states. It became a an end, many of Europe’s leaders forum where the western grappled with the ‘Question of European states began to Europe’. Should Europe be cooperate on trade and allowed to revert to its old rivalries economic issues. The Council of or be reconstructed on principles Europe, established in 1949, and institutions that would was another step forward in contribute to a positive conception political cooperation. The of international relations? The process of economic integration Second World War shattered many of European capitalist countries of the assumptions and structures proceeded step by step (see on which the European states had Timeline of European Integration) based their relations. In 1945, the leading to the formation of the European states confronted the European Economic Community ruin of their economies and the in 1957. This process acquired destruction of the assumptions a political dimension with the and structures on which Europe creation of the European had been founded. Parliament. The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast European integration after track and resulted in the 1945 was aided by the Cold War. establishment of the European America extended massive Union in 1992. The foundation financial help for reviving was thus laid for a common Europe’s economy under what foreign and security policy, was called the ‘Marshall Plan’. cooperation on justice and The US also created a new home affairs, and the creation collective security structure of a single currency. under NATO. Under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for The European Union has European Economic Cooperation evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly political one. The EU has started to act more as a nation state. While the attempts to have a Constitution for the EU have failed, it has its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency. It also has some form The European Union Flag of a common foreign and security The circle of gold stars stands for solidarity and harmony between policy in its dealings with other the peoples of Europe. It has twelve stars, as the number twelve is nations. The European Union traditionally the symbol of perfection, completeness and unity. has tried to expand areas of Source: http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm cooperation while acquiring new 2018-19 Alternative Centres of Power 53 EUROPEAN UNION MAP Older Members New Members Finland Sweden Estonia Latvia Denmark Lithuania Ireland Netherlands United Kingdom Poland Belgium Germany Czech Republic Luxembourg Slovakia Austria Hungary France Romania Croatia Italy Slovenia Bulgaria Spain Greece Portugal Malta Cyprus members, especially from the GDP of more than $17 trillion in erstwhile Soviet bloc. The process 2016, next to that of the United has not proved easy, for people States of America. Its currency, in many countries are not very the euro, can pose a threat to the enthusiastic in giving the EU dominance of the US dollar. Its powers that were exercised by the share of world trade is much larger Oh, now I know what a government of their country. than that of the United States Schengen visa means! There are also reservations about allowing it to be more assertive in Under the Schengen including some new countries trade disputes with the US and agreement, you have to within the EU. China. Its economic power gives get a visa from just one of the EU countries and it influence over its closest The EU has economic, political that allows you entry in and diplomatic, and military neighbours as well as in Asia and most of the other influence. The EU is the world’s Africa. It also functions as an European Union second biggest economy with a important bloc in international countries. 2018-19 54 Contemporary World Politics TIMELINE OF EUROPEAN of the EU, Britain and France, hold INTEGRATION permanent seats on the UN Security Council. The EU includes 1951 April: Six west European countries, France, West several non-permanent members Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg of the UNSC. This has enabled the sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and EU to influence some US policies Steel Community (ECSC). such as the current US position 1957 March 25: These six countries sign the Treaties of Rome on Iran’s nuclear programme. Its establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and use of diplomacy, economic the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). investments, and negotiations 1973 January: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom rather than coercion and military join the European Community (EC). force has been effective as in the 1979 June: First direct elections to the European Parliament case of its dialogue with China on human rights and environmental 1981 January: Greece joins the EC. degradation. 1985 June: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC members. Militarily, the EU’s combined armed forces are the second 1986 January: Spain and Portugal join the EC. largest in the world. Its total 1990 October: Unification of Germany. spending on defence is second 1992 February 7: The Treaty of Maastricht was signed after the US. Two EU member establishing the European Union (EU). states, Britain and France, also have nuclear arsenals of 1993 January: The single market was created. approximately 550 nuclear 1995 January: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. warheads. It is also the world’s 2002 January: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in second most important source of the 12 EU members. space and communications 2004 May: Ten new members, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, technology. Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia As a supranational organi- and Slovenia join the EU. sation, the EU is able to intervene 2007 January: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. in economic, political and social Slovenia adopts the Euro. areas. But in many areas its 2009 December: The Lisbon Treaty came into force. member states have their own 2012 : The EU is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. foreign relations and defence policies that are often at odds 2013: Croatia becomes the 28th member of the EU. with each other. Thus, Britain’s 2016: Referendum in Britain, 51.9 per cent voters decide Prime Minister Tony Blair was that Britain exit (Brexit) from the EU. America’s partner in the Iraq invasion, and many of the EU’s newer members made up the US- economic organisations such as led ‘coalition of the willing’ the World Trade Organisation whereas Germany and France (WTO). opposed American policy. There The EU also has political and is also a deep-seated ‘Euro- diplomatic influence. Two members skepticism’ in some parts 2018-19 Alternative Centres of Power 55 © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. The cartoon appeared in 2003 when the European Union’s initiative to draft a common Constitution failed. Why does the cartoonist use the image of the ship Titanic to represent EU? of Europe about the EU’s region of Asia? Before and during integrationist agenda. Thus, for the Second World War, this region example, Britain’s former prime of Asia suffered the economic and minister, Margaret Thatcher, political consequences of kept the UK out of the European repeated colonialisms, both Market. Denmark and Sweden European and Japanese. At the have resisted the Maastricht end of the war, it confronted Treaty and the adoption of the problems of nation-building, the euro, the common European ravages of poverty and economic currency. This limits the ability backwardness and the pressure of the EU to act in matters of to align with one great power or foreign relations and defence. another during the Cold War. This was a recipe for conflict, which the countries of Southeast Asia ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH could ill afford. Efforts at Asian EAST ASIAN NATIONS and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the Imagine what would (ASEAN) Non-Aligned Movement, were happen if they have ineffective in establishing the a European Union Take a look at the political map of conventions for informal football team! the world. Which countries would cooperation and interaction. you say fall in the southeastern Hence, the Southeast Asian 2018-19 56 Contemporary World Politics MAP OF EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC ASEAN taking its strength to ten. Unlike the EU there is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and institutions. ASEAN countries have celebrated what has become known as the ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non- confrontationist and cooperative.