Reconstructing and Interpreting Ancient Crop Management Practice& Ethnobotanical Investigations into Traditional Dryland Farming in Northern Jordan Carol Palmer VoL I Text Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield September 1994 : Table of Contents Volume I Extended Table of Contents.............................................................................................. List of Figures..................................................................................................................vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... XV List of Appendices...........................................................................................................xix List of Plates.................................................................................................................... XX Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... xxii Summary........................................................................................................................... XXiV Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................xxv Notes (Currency, Weights, Transliteration and Nomenclature)........................................xxvi Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................1 Chapter 2 Environmental and Social Setting ................................................................14 Chapter 3 Crop Management Regimes ...........................................................................35 Chapter 4 Methodology.................................................................................................53 Chapter 5 The Decision-Making Environment..............................................................85 Chapter 6 AgrIcultural Decision-Making ....................................................................114 Chapter 7 The Ecological Effects of Crop Management Practices..................................149 Chapter 8 Reconstructing and Interpreting Ancient Crop Management Practices............................................................178 Bibliography ................................................................................................................194 Volume II Figures Tables Appendices Plates Extended Table of Contents Volume I Chapter1 Introduction .............................................................................................1 1.1 Cultivated Fallow...........................................................................................2 1.2 Ethnographic Analogy and Archaeology........................................................3 1.2.1 ReconstructIng the Past...................................................................3 1.2.2 Cultivated Fallow and Weed Behaviour............................................4 1.2.3 Interpreting Change In the Past......................................................4 1.2.4 Cultivated Fallow and Human Behaviour.........................................5 1.2.5 ConclusIons - Reconstruction and Interpretation ...........................5 1.3 l'he Study Area............................................................................................... 1.4 The People - Fellaheen, Peasants, or Farmers? ..............................................7 1.5 Analytical Approach..................................................................................... 1.5.1 Ethnographic Approach - Decision-Making ....................................9 1.5.2 BotanIcal Approach.........................................................................10 1.5.3 Structure and Orientation of the Thesis..........................................12 Chapter 2 Environmental and Social Setting.......................................................14 2.1 Topography.....................................................................................................14 2.2 Cliniate...........................................................................................................15 2.2.1 PrecipItation...................................................................................16 2.2.2 Temperature....................................................................................17 2.2.3 Climate - Summary..........................................................................18 2.3 Geology and Soils............................................................................................18 2.3.1 Geology..................................................................e.........................18 2.3.2 Soils ................................................................................................19 2.3.2.1 Xerochrepts - Shallow Red Mediterranean Soils and 1.lthosols ......................................................................................19 2.3.2.2 Chromoxerts - Deep Red Mediterranean Soils ..................19 2.3.2.3 Local Soil Classification...................................................19 2.4 Vegetation ......................................................................................................19 2.4.1 Evergreen Forest.............................................................................20 2.4.2 Degraded Evergreen Forest..............................................................2 1 2.4.3 Deciduous J)egraded Forests ...........................................................22 2.4.4 Plains Vegetation ............................................................................23 2.4.5 Segetal Plant Communities ..............................................................23 2.5 Local History..................................................................................................24 2.5.1 'I'he Ottoman Period.........................................................................24 2.5.2 Transjordan.....................................................................................26 2.5.3 The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan...................................................27 2.6 Land Tenure ..................................................................................................28 2.6.1 Ottoman Land Reibrins.....................................................................28 2.6.2 Communal Farming (Mushaa) - In practice......................................29 2.6.3 Communal Farming (Musha) - In theory.........................................30 2.6.4 The Dissolution of Musha'a In Transjordan.......................................31 2.7 KInship Ties...................................................................................................32 2.8 Sunnily.........................................................................................................33 2.8.1 Environmental Setting.....................................................................33 2.8.2 social Setting...................................................................................34 ii Chapter 3 Crop Management Regimes .35 3.1 Cultivated Fallow...........................................................................................35 3.1.1 A 'Special Cultural Technique' .......................................................35 3.1.2 The Principles of Cultivated Fallowing..........................................36 3.1.3 Field Experiments...........................................................................39 3.1.4 Factors Affecting the 'Success' of Cultivated Fallow.......................40 3.1.5 The 'Thrice-Ploughed Field' (Short Fallows)...................................42 3.1.6 'Weedy Fallow' ................................................................................43 3.2 CroppIng Patterns..........................................................................................43 3.2.1 Common Crop Rotation Regimes .......................................................43 3.2.2 PrecIpitation and Crop Rotation Regimes ........................................44 3.2.3 The Effect of a Preceding Crop on Cereal Yield ...............................45 3.2.4 Adding Manure/Fertiliser..............................................................47 3.3 ElIminating Cultivated Fallow........................................................................49 3.3.1 The Traditional' Value of Cultivated Fallow - A Buffer.................49 3.3.2 The Agronomic Perspective.............................................................49 3.3.3 ReplacIng Fallow with Legumes.......................................................50 3.4 Contemporary Crop Rotation Regimes In Jordan.............................................51 3.5 Summary.........................................................................................................52 Chapter 4 Methodology.............................................................................................53 4.1 Ethnographic Methodology.............................................................................53 4.1.1 ParticIpation - Interaction and Observation...................................53 4.1.2 Interview Methodology....................................................................56 4.1.3 The Farmers Interviewed - The Nature of the Study Group .............57 4.1.4 The Interriew..................................................................................57