SETTLING DOWN FOR THE LONG HAUL: THE BLACK FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN SOUTHWEST GEORGIA, 1945-1995 by JAMES BOWERS WALL (Under the Direction of Cindy Hahamovitch) ABSTRACT “Settling Down for the Long Haul” examines black freedom and white resistance movements in the Black Belt of Southwest Georgia over the course of several decades. The study centers on Albany, one of the most important yet under-examined battlegrounds of the modern African American civil rights movement. By investigating the prolonged and varied campaigns for racial equality before and after the brief involvement of Martin Luther King, Jr., the project sheds new light on how grassroots movements are formed–and persist–after their supposed “climax” has passed. INDEX WORDS: Civil Rights Movement, African American, Southwest Georgia, Albany, Albany Movement, Long Civil Rights Movement, War on Poverty, Agricultural Cooperatives, Disaster Relief, Flint River Flood, Labor History, Community Studies SETTLING DOWN FOR THE LONG HAUL: THE BLACK FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN SOUTHWEST GEORGIA, 1945-1995 by JAMES BOWERS WALL B.A., University of North Texas, 2008 M.A., University of Houston, 2011 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2018 © 2018 James Bowers Wall All Rights Reserved SETTLING DOWN FOR THE LONG HAUL: THE BLACK FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN SOUTHWEST GEORGIA, 1945-1995 by JAMES BOWERS WALL Major Professor: Cindy Hahamovitch Committee: James C. Cobb John Inscoe J. Todd Moye Electronic Version Approved: Suzanne Barbour Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2018 iv To Mom and Dad v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Seeing as I’m supposedly a real historian now, and this is in fact a work of history, it’s only appropriate that I present my acknowledgements in chronological fashion. From the beginning, my mother and father have been there, in every conceivable way. To my mother I owe an immense debt of gratitude for transferring her love of history to me. There is no one better in an archive than Mary Wall, and throughout the course of this project she served as an unpaid research assistant, helping transcribe interviews, scan microfilm, and dive through reams of old documents with me at libraries across the country. More than that though, she’s been a devoted friend along this journey, and I’m forever grateful to her for modeling a strength and courage I can’t come close to emulating. To my father I owe a boatload of money that will never be repaid (sorry Dad). From him I also borrowed a sense of humor and a way of looking at the world that equipped me to weather the storms of graduate school. My sister EJ is crazy, in a good way. Throughout our lives, and especially over the better part of the last decade (it could be safely said that I’ve taken the scenic route through graduate school), she has always picked up the phone, always called, always been ready with a well-placed movie quote or off-the-wall story. My brother Joseph is a devoted family man, always supporting each member of our haphazard clan with a quiet dignity that inspires me. My Aunt Rita is one of the most loving people I’ve ever met, and from time to time when I feel the weight of the world pressing down upon me, I look at my phone to see a loving text message from her. I have been lucky to have a family vi that–while certainly eclectic–will always be there for me. We are odd, but strong, and I couldn’t have done it without you guys. I have fewer friends than most, but in terms of quality, they can’t be beat. James Emerson tops the bill. His unique perspective on the world, his creative talent, and his willingness to poke through the minutiae of everyday life by refusing to take anything seriously has yielded a treasure trove of friendship that cannot be quantified. Mary Poe– the erudite, literary, and hilarious member of my undergraduate cohort and lifelong “Bear”–I thank you for all the porch time, all the singalongs, all the Camel Crushes. Throughout graduate school I’ve been sustained by a revolving door of good friends that helped me laugh my way through the highs, lows, and middles of academia. I would not have made it through my time in Houston without the welcome company of Ben and Courtney Pugno. Throughout my time in Athens, I’ve met an amazing cast of characters that have brightened my life. Ashley Roseberry, who is one of the most intelligent and sharp-witted intellectuals I’ve ever met, always had my back and kept me sane many a time through grad school. Alex Nordlund never said no to an afternoon beer, and for that he’s one of the best friends I’ve had at UGA. Alex and Allie LoPilato always put up with me and were there to provide a couch and/or bed to sleep on during Atlanta research trips. Jacob Martin was always ready to play chess, talk NBA, or just sit at a bar and discuss life. Dillon Carroll can always make me laugh–always–and I’ll forever cherish our time in Athens and our research trips together. Michele Johnson is one of the most devoted and caring people I’ve ever met, and she has been an enduring and supportive presence in my life over the past few years of school. Ashton Ellett has been a fantastic mentor and friend since day one at UGA, and his political wonkery is equaled vii by no one. Kurt Windisch is just one goofy bastard, but his infectious zest for life and our shared love for Seinfeld has always brought a smile to my face. There are too many names to mention, and I know I will forget some, but I must extend the same gratitude to Ben Smith, Kathryn Veale, James Owen, Jon Emerson, Gilberto Navarro, Andrew and Katie Fialka, Bryant Barnes, Kate Dahlstrand, Cutter Lindbergh (and all the members of the Pound Hall basketball crew), Trae Welborn, Robby Poister, and Whitney Priest for making my life better. As for the faculty and staff of the UGA History Department, I could not have asked for a better group of people to work with. Laurie Kane, though constantly infuriated by my complete inability to meet deadlines, has nevertheless forgiven me each time and helped me navigate the circuitous bureaucratic channels of grad school, all while making me laugh and letting me sound off on practically anything. I will miss our hallway stop n’ chats. The same goes for Cilla Cartwright, who made me chuckle every time I went down to bother her in the main office (and I bothered her a lot). Robert Pratt took a chance on an unproven young historian from the University of Houston and shepherded my application through the appropriate channels. Seeing as UGA was the only doctoral program that accepted me, I can safely say his support changed my life. In my early years at UGA, I was fortunate to learn from an amazing group of historians. Professors like Stephen Mihm, Stephen Berry, Shane Hamilton, Reinaldo Román, Dan Rood, Brian Drake, and Tim Cleaveland are what make the art of history enjoyable, and I thank them all for their perspective and tutelage. And then there’s the boss: Cindy Hahamovitch. When I sheepishly approached her asking if she’d read a chapter from my dissertation, she immediately agreed. Now she’s my major advisor, and I can safely say viii that without her I would not have made it to the end of this long journey. She is one of the most supportive, most productive, most intelligent, and most devoted mentors I’ve ever seen, and I’m lucky to have her in my corner. Thank you Cindy, for always answering my emails as I’m typing them, and for reading my chapters before I’m done writing them. The rest of my committee is a veritable group of all stars. For my money, Jim Cobb is the undisputed dean of southern history, and I’m honored to have worked in his shadow over the last several years. John Inscoe is without question the nicest person I’ve ever met, and has always greeted me at his office with a smile and an encouraging word. Outside of UGA, there’s a small group of individuals who were truly essential in bringing this project to fruition. I would never have known about Albany had Todd Moye, my undergraduate mentor at the University of North Texas (and outside reader on this project), not suggested I look into it. After he did so I called Lee Formwalt, then- head of the Albany Civil Rights Institute. We talked for two hours about the history of this troubled region, and he invited me to southwest Georgia where he introduced me to activists, showed me new sources, and was a guiding light throughout the research process. He is one of the most giving people I’ve met in my academic tenure, and without him this dissertation would never have seen the light of day. But most crucial to this project were the people of Albany, who shared their lives with me and taught me what real struggle looks like. I hope my small contribution here can help illuminate their stories to a broader audience. And finally, in the interest of saving the best for last, there is Allie Venrick, my partner through the last year and my person, whose love and devotion gives me life and ix keeps me going during the most stressful of times.