Spatial Imaginaries of ‘Coast’: Case Studies in Power and Place Jenny Crawford Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Architecture Planning and Landscape University of Newcastle January 2017 Abstract UK land use policy since the mid twentieth century has recognized the ‘coast’ as representing key economic, ecological and cultural resources for development and management. However, the definition, understanding and role of coastal space in planning processes has attracted limited research interest until recently. The context for including coastal space in UK planning policy has changed radically in the last few years, with, for instance, new horizons in minerals and fuel extraction, nuclear power and renewable energy affecting the land/sea interface directly. At the same time, the introduction of new spatial planning systems for marine space, requiring integration with land use planning, has shifted the institutional and conceptual parameters of development policy and regulation. This PhD thesis uses case studies in two cross-border regions of the northern UK to examine how framings of spatial imaginaries of ‘coast’ operate in consolidating or challenging dominant development discourses. It takes a relational approach to the understanding of coastal space, recognizing its discursive construction by policy actors. It examines the ways in which such constructions are being harnessed within national and local planning processes, by drawing on critical discourse analysis of the positioning and mobilization of coastal imaginaries in development policy-making. Both case study areas have extensive environmental designations of international significance. The findings point to the ways in which different imaginaries of ‘coast’ in these areas are conscripted into competing discourses of local development. The discursive harnessing of spatial imaginaries of coast by dominant economic development agendas is an active mechanism of inclusion and exclusion. These findings highlight the importance, in development policy analysis, of recognizing spatial imaginaries of ‘coast’ as the focus of agonistic and deliberative debates, rather than as functional entities per se. Dedicated to Will and Joan Acknowledgements This study has been funded by the Lord Adams Fellowship and the Earl Grey Fellowship, under the auspices of Newcastle University Institute for Sustainability. I am very grateful to my supervisors Professor Simin Davoudi and Dr Paola Gazzola for their unstinting support, encouragement and helpful commentary, to Marian Kyte and colleagues and fellow PhD students of the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape in Newcastle University for providing a supportive study environment, and to Professor Patsy Healey, Dr Robin Thompson and Dr Laura Leonardo for their inspiration. My sincere thanks also to all my interviewees and to Avril Merryfield, Robert Upton, Cliff Hague and Tim Marshall for their practical support. Finally I would like to thank my family and friends for their great patience. Contents List of Boxes, Tables and Figures v Abbreviations and acronyms viii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Background and research aim 1 Context 4 Conceptual framework 5 Research questions 7 Research method and case study areas 7 Structure of thesis 9 Chapter 2 Spatial Imaginaries and Power 10 Introduction 10 Defining power 11 Power, knowledge and discourse 13 Power, relational space and place 17 Definition of spatial imaginaries and place-frames 18 Underlying discourses of human-nature relationship 21 Industrialism and ecological modernization 23 The ecosystem approach 26 The commons discourse 29 Coastal imaginaries 30 Conclusions 33 Chapter 3 The Coast in UK Environmental and Development Policy 34 Introduction 34 Early development of UK coastal policy 34 Integrated coastal zone management 38 Marine spatial planning and the seaward shift 47 National Planning Policy Frameworks 52 The Ecosystem Approach 54 Discussion 55 i Chapter 4 Research Questions and Methodology 61 Introduction 61 Selection of case study areas 63 Interviews 66 Identifying interviewees 66 Designing and undertaking interviews 68 Policy texts 70 Critical discourse analysis (CDA) in planning research 72 Using CDA in this study 74 Use of Nvivo software 77 Methodological issues 77 Ethical considerations in research design and delivery 78 Chapter 5 Case Study 1 – The Solway Coast 80 Introduction 80 Development context 84 Governance of development 88 Cumbria 88 Dumfries and Galloway 90 Cross-border institutions 93 Conflicting development discourses 94 Dominant development discourses 94 Alternative development discourses 102 Discussion 110 Chapter 6 Case study 2 – The Eastern Borderlands 115 Introduction 115 Development context 119 Governance of development 123 Scottish Borders 123 Northumberland 124 Cross-border institutions 126 ii Conflicting development discourses 127 Dominant development discourses 127 Alternative development discourses 133 Discussion 141 Chapter 7 Analysis of Constructions of ‘Coast’ 144 Introduction 144 Coastal processes and entities 145 Coastal land 145 Coastal waters 146 Coastal habitats 147 Coastal settlements 147 Identifying and characterizing active coastal imaginaries 148 Coast as other 148 The wild coast 149 The rural coast 149 The old industrial coast 150 The new industrial coast 150 The mobilization of coastal imaginaries in policy 151 Solway Coast 154 Eastern Borderlands 165 Discussion 168 Chapter 8 Conclusions: The Role of Spatial Imaginaries in Governance 170 Introduction 170 Power and development governance 170 The significance of spatial imaginaries of ‘coast’ 171 Implications for practices of development governance 174 Implications for theory and research 178 Reflections on methodology 179 Future directions for research 181 Annex Introductory correspondence for interviewees 185 References 187 iii List of Boxes, Tables and Figures Boxes Box 2.1 Characteristics of a spatial imaginary, as defined in this study 18 Box 2.2 Proposed analysis of spatial imaginaries 20 Box 2.3 Dryzek’s four types of discourse within Western industrialism 23 Box 2.4 Principles of the ecosystem approach identified by the UN Convention on Biodiversity 27 Box 2.5 Environmental discourse in English planning policy 28 Box 2.6 Major polarities in development discourse 31 Box 3.1 Objectives of Heritage Coast designation 36 Box 3.2 Agenda 21 objectives for coastal and marine areas 39 Box 3.3 Categorisation of Scottish Coast in NPPG 13 Coastal Planning 43 Box 3.4 A Vision for ICZM in England 45 Box 4.1 Schedule of interview questions/prompts 68 Box 4.2 Points of analytical reflection underpinning interview schedule 69 Box 4.3 A framework for the description of spatial imaginaries 74 Box 4.4 Functionality of Nvivo 10 software used in the research 77 Box 5.1 Solway Area Catchment Planning Advisory Group 93 Box 6.1 Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast EMS Management Group members 125 Box 6.2 Northumberlandia: extracts from publicity leaflet, 2012 136 Box 7.1 Spatial entities described as ‘coastal’ in the policy texts 144 Box 7.2 Non-spatial entities described as ‘coastal’ in the policy texts 145 Box 7.3 Processes described as ‘coastal’ 146 Tables Table 3.1 Coastal planning policy in England and Scotland 1944-2012 35 Table 3.2 Dimensions of policy integration 40 Table 3.3 Overview of marine governance tools in England and Scotland 48 Table 3.4 Phases in the development of coastal management practice 56 Table 3.5 Changing planning practices in the coastal context 58 Table 3.6 Identities, functions and associations of ‘coast’ 59 iv Table 4.1 Organisational affiliations and code names of interviewees 67 Table 4.2 Original selection of policy texts 71 Table 5.1 Settlements over 3000 population in Carlisle, Allerdale and Dumfries and Galloway 85 Table 5.2 Demographic and economic indicators for Cumbria and Dumfries and Galloway 87 Table 5.3 Core funding of Solway Firth Partnership in 2011-2012 103 Table 5.4 Conflicting discursive elements in the Solway Case Study 111 Table 6.1 Settlements over 3000 population in Northumberland and Scottish Borders 120 Table 6.2 Demographic and economic indicators for Northumberland and Scottish Borders 121 Table 6.3 Population, housing completions and future housing targets for Northumberland Delivery Areas 130 Table 6.4 SESplan scenarios for housing need and demand 2012-2032 132 Table 6.5 Conflicting discursive elements in the Eastern Borderlands 142 Table 7.1 Coastal imaginaries identified in case studies 152 Figures Figure 2.1 Spatial imaginaries, place frame and power outcomes 20 Figure 3.1 English ICZM Strategy 2008: envisaged policy relationships 46 Figure 3.2 Marine planning areas for England and Scotland 50 Figure 4.1 Research strategy 62 Figure 4.2 Location of case study areas 65 Figure 4.3 Key elements of text analysis 75 Figure 5.1 The Solway Firth EMS 80 Figure 5.2 Local authority boundaries in Case Study 1 81 Figure 5.3 View to Galloway Hills from Silloth 82 Figure 5.4 View to Lake District from Solway Coast AONB 82 Figure 5.5 Grazed wetlands in Solway Coast AONB 83 Figure 5.6 ‘Rural Idyll’ development narrative in case study 1 96 Figure 5.7 ‘Resource Base’ development narrative in case study 1 101 Figure 6.1 Berwickshire and North Northumberland EMS 115 Figure 6.2 Local authority boundaries in Case Study 2 116 Figure 6.3 Berwick-upon-Tweed 117 v Figure 6.4 Northumberland Coast AONB 118 Figure 6.5 Port of Blyth from Cambois Beach 118 Figure 6.6 ‘Rural Idyll’ development narrative in case study 2 133 Figure 6.7