HOW TO FORGE AN EMPIRE: ARMS PRODUCTION IN THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD A Thesis Submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada (c) Copyright by Jordan Matthew Dills 2017 Anthropology M.A. Graduate Program January 2018 Abstract HOW TO FORGE AN EMPIRE: ARMS PRODUCTION IN THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD Jordan Matthew Dills The goal of this thesis is to explore the production of ferrous (iron) armaments in the Middle Byzantine Empire, and more specifically the tenth century. Three cornerstones define the current research: (1) An exploration of the technology at use in the production of ferrous armaments. (2) A comprehensive look at the logistical and organizational struc- tures which facilitated this industry. (3) A closer look at the labour investments required to manufacture armaments through an ethnographic and experimental approach. The tenth century document known as the De Cerimoniis forms a foundational pillar of the current study. The document details the quantity and types of military equipment required for a naval expedition launched by the Byzantines in A.D. 949. The information provided within has made this inquiry into logistics possible, and has allowed for the assessment of overall trends in the tenth century arms production industry. Keywords: Byzantine, metallurgy, weapons, armour, armor, production, logistics. ii Acknowledgments I would first like to acknowledge my supervisor Dr. Hugh Elton whose guidance was instrumental not only in the success of this thesis but in my growth as both a re- searcher and writer. The constancy with which he challenged my thinking throughout the two-year project was a catalyst for personal development. The flexibility which he af- forded me in the formulation and execution of my research was greatly appreciated and contributed to the passion that I brought to this project. I would also like to thank my committee members Dr. Rodney Fitzsimons and Dr. Lisa Janz for their participation in my research. In addition I would like to thank the Bagnani Trust for providing funding during my first year at Trent. A thanks must be extended to Darrell Markewitz, Dr. Timothy Dawson, Robb Martin, and Dr. David Sim for their participation in the research process. The information they provided and their continued correspondence long after the interviews was critical in the formulation of this thesis. Robb Martin graciously allowed me access to his forge and workshop and for this I am deeply appreciative The success of this thesis hinged on the support of my family and friends. Without the support of Mark, Sharon, Brendan, Candace, Josh, Daimon, Leo, Pat, and Chloe, this would not have been possible. I would be remiss to not mention the stimulating environ- ment provided by those members of the Anthropology Graduate Program whom I have had the privilege of getting to know. Last of all I would like to thank Allie whose strength and guidance has been a pil- lar in my life for the last six years. Your encouragement and belief in my goals have been a driving force in writing this thesis. In my absence over the past two years your contin- ued support in my pursuit of scholarship has been deeply appreciated. iii Table of Contents Abstract.......................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................iii Table of Contents.....................................................................................................................iv List of Illustrations.................................................................................................................vii List of Tables and Charts.....................................................................................................ix Glossary.......................................................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Introduction.........................................................................................................1 1.1) Introduction...............................................................................................................1 1.2) Historical Sources......................................................................................................4 1.2a) Constantine VII and the De Cerimoniis......................................................4 1.2b) Military treatises..........................................................................................11 1.2c) Judicial Literature.......................................................................................14 1.3) The Evolution of Administration in the Byzantine Empire...................................15 1.3a) The Development of the Thematic System...................................................18 1.4) The Rise of the Tagmata............................................................................................20 1.5) Political and Geographic Regions of the Near East and Mediterranean.............22 1.5a) The Anatolian and Iranian Plateaux...........................................................24 1.5b) The Balkan Peninsula..................................................................................27 1.5c) The Eurasian Steppes and the Deserts of Syria and Arabia........................28 1.5d) The Agricultural Plains...............................................................................28 1.5e) The Mediterranean......................................................................................30 1.5f) Crete.............................................................................................................31 1.6) Conclusions.................................................................................................................33 Chapter 2: Warfare and the Byzantine Army...............................................................35 2.1) Introduction...............................................................................................................35 2.2) Romano-Persian and Romano-Arab Warfare........................................................36 2.3) Arab Presence in the Eastern Mediterranean.........................................................38 2.3a) Abū Ḥafṣ and the Andalusian Exiles...........................................................38 2.3b) The Byzantine Offensive..............................................................................42 2.4) Considerations on Evidence for Byzantine Arms...................................................46 2.4a) Artistic Evidence of Arms............................................................................47 2.4b) Historical Evidence of Arms.......................................................................49 2.4c) Archaeological Remains of Arms................................................................51 2.5) The Byzantine Panoply.............................................................................................52 2.5a)Composition of the Byzantine Army.............................................................52 2.5b) Non-Disposable Offensive Arms..............................................................54 2.5b i) The Spear....................................................................................54 2.5b ii) The Sword..................................................................................56 2.5b iii) The Axe.....................................................................................59 2.5b iv) The Mace...................................................................................61 2.5b v) The Bow......................................................................................62 2.5b vi) The Sling....................................................................................63 2.5c) Disposable Offensive Arms........................................................................63 2.5c i) The Javelin...................................................................................64 2.5c ii) Arrows ........................................................................................64 2.5c iii) Caltrops......................................................................................65 2.5d) Defensive Equipment.................................................................................66 2.5d i) Headgear......................................................................................66 iv 2.5d ii) Body Armour...............................................................................69 2.5d iii) Limb Armour..............................................................................71 2.5d iv) Shields.........................................................................................73 2.6) Conclusions..................................................................................................................74 Chapter 3: Byzantine Metallurgical Technology.............................................................75 3.1) Introduction...................................................................................................................75 3.1a) Iron and its Alloys...........................................................................................75 3.2) Extractive Ferrous Metallurgy.....................................................................................76