Deposit Model for Heavy-Mineral Sands in Coastal Environments Chapter L of Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–L U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey COVER. Layered deposit of heavy-mineral sands in a modern beach at Folly Beach, South Carolina. Photograph by Carleton Bern, U.S. Geological Survey, February 2013. Deposit Model for Heavy-Mineral Sands in Coastal Environments By Bradley S. Van Gosen, David L. Fey, Anjana K. Shah, Philip L. Verplanck, and Todd M. Hoefen Chapter L of Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–L U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior SALLY JEWELL, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2014 For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS. For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner. Suggested citation: Van Gosen, B.S., Fey, D.L., Shah, A.K., Verplanck, P.L., and Hoefen, T.M., 2014, Deposit model for heavy-mineral sands in coastal environments: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–L, 51 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070L. ISSN 2328-0328 (online) iii Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................................1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2 Overview of Mineral Resource Importance .....................................................................................2 Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................5 Deposit Type and Associated Commodities ..............................................................................................5 Name .......................................................................................................................................................5 Synonyms ...............................................................................................................................................5 Brief Description ...................................................................................................................................5 Associated Deposit Types ...................................................................................................................7 Primary Commodities ...........................................................................................................................8 Byproduct Commodities ......................................................................................................................8 Trace Constituents ................................................................................................................................8 Example Deposits...........................................................................................................................................8 Australia .................................................................................................................................................9 Brazil .....................................................................................................................................................12 China .....................................................................................................................................................12 India.......................................................................................................................................................15 Kenya ....................................................................................................................................................15 Madagascar.........................................................................................................................................15 Mozambique ........................................................................................................................................17 Senegal .................................................................................................................................................17 Sierra Leone.........................................................................................................................................18 South Africa .........................................................................................................................................18 Sri Lanka ...............................................................................................................................................18 Ukraine..................................................................................................................................................18 United States .......................................................................................................................................18 Vietnam .................................................................................................................................................24 Historical Evolution of Descriptive and Genetic Knowledge and Concepts ......................................25 Regional Environment .................................................................................................................................25 Geotectonic Environment ..................................................................................................................25 Temporal (Secular) Relations ............................................................................................................26 Relations to Structures ......................................................................................................................26 Relations to Igneous Rocks ...............................................................................................................27 Relations to Sedimentary Rocks ......................................................................................................27 Relations to Metamorphic Rocks .....................................................................................................27 Physical Description of Deposit ................................................................................................................28 Dimensions in Plan View ...................................................................................................................28 Vertical Extent .....................................................................................................................................28 Form and Shape ..................................................................................................................................28 Host Rocks ...........................................................................................................................................29 Geophysical Characteristics ......................................................................................................................29 Magnetic Signature ............................................................................................................................29 Gravity Signature ................................................................................................................................30 iv Electrical Signature ............................................................................................................................30 Radiometric Signature .......................................................................................................................30 Remote Sensing ..................................................................................................................................30 Hypogene Ore Characteristics ..................................................................................................................31 Hydrothermal Alteration .............................................................................................................................32 Supergene Ore Characteristics .................................................................................................................32 Weathering Processes ...............................................................................................................................32 Role of Weathering in Deposit Genesis ..........................................................................................32 Geochemical Processes ....................................................................................................................33