Master Thesis in Peace and Conflict Studies Department of Peace and Conflict Studies Uppsala University “SO THE KILLINGS CONTINUED” Wartime Mobilisation and Post-war Violence in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa SEBASTIAN VAN BAALEN [email protected] Spring 2015 Supervisor: Kristine Höglund To the people of Richmond, Umbumbulu and Bhambayi, who have suffered the burden of violence. 2 Cry the beloved country by Alan Paton There is a lovely road that runs from Ixopo into the hills. These hills are grass-covered and rolling, and they are lovely beyond any singing of it. The road climbs seven miles into them, to Carisbrooke; and from there, if there is no mist, you look down on one of the fairest valleys of Africa. About you there is grass and bracken and you may hear the forlorn crying of the titihoya, one of the birds of the veld. Below you is the valley of the Umzimkulu, on its journey from the Drakensberg to the sea; and beyond and behind the river, great hill after great hill; and beyond and behind them, the mountains of Ingeli and East Griqualand (Paton 1948:2). 3 ABSTRACT Even though the end of war is often expected to lead to the end of political violence, empirical evidence suggests that many post-war countries experience continuous violence. This study explores the issue of post-war violence at the local level and seeks to explain why some communities experience high levels of violence while others do not. By deriving the implications from the theory on elite mobilisation in civil war, I argue that post-war violence is a function of the type of wartime mobilisation that occurs in a community. More specifically, I argue that violence is more likely in communities where local actors side with national actors in order to gain strategic advantages rather than based on their support for the national conflict dimension. This is because alliance-based mobilisation intensifies local tensions and increases the capabilities of local actors to employ violence. Using the method of structured focused comparison, the hypothesis is tested on three communities in South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal province. Data was collected through interviews and archive research. The main finding of the study is that alliance-based mobilisation is an important factor when accounting for the variation between the communities. Keywords: post-conflict states, post-war violence, microdynamics of civil war, South Africa 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without the generous advise and support from the people around me. While there are many people that deserve to be acknowledged, some have been particularly important throughout my field study and subsequent writing process. My sincerest gratitude goes to the people of Richmond, Umbumbulu and Bhambayi, whom have courageously shared their most traumatic memories with me. I specifically want to thank Tim Houghton, who generously provided me with a place to stay in Richmond, and Glenda Caine and Andries Odendaal for listening to and reviewing my early theoretical framework. I am also indebted to the Centre for Civil Society in Durban for accepting me as a visiting scholar and providing me with a place to work. I also want to acknowledge two South African organisations for sharing their networks with me, Sinani Survivors of Violence and the Diakonia Council of Churches. My sincerest gratitude also goes to my supervisor, Kristine Höglund, for her invaluable advice and genuine interest in my research. Finally, I want to thank Rama Naidu, Patrick Bond, Shauna Mottiar, Nazim Gani, Alain Tschudin, Kudzai Taruona, Vicky Ireland, Douglas Dziva, Cheryl Goodenough, Eshara Singh, and Tanusha Raniga. 5 ABBREVIATIONS ANC African National Congress BDF Bhambayi Development Forum HRC Human Rights Committee IBI Independent Board of Inquiry IFP Inkatha Freedom Party LPC Local Peace Committee MK Umkhonto we Sizwe NP National Party UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Progam SDU Self Defence Unit SPU Self Protection Unit TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission UDF United Democratic Front 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 10 II. WARTIME MOBILISATION AND POST-WAR VIOLENCE .................................. 13 Defining post-war violence .............................................................................................. 13 Previous research .............................................................................................................. 14 Post-war violence at the community level ....................................................................... 15 Mobilisation in civil war .................................................................................................. 16 From wartime mobilisation to post-war violence ............................................................ 18 In summary ....................................................................................................................... 20 III. RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 22 Case selection ................................................................................................................... 22 Structure of empirical analysis ......................................................................................... 24 Material and sources ......................................................................................................... 26 IV. THE CIVIL WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA ....................................................................... 29 Conflict background ......................................................................................................... 29 V. RICHMOND ...................................................................................................................... 31 Post-war violence ............................................................................................................. 31 Type of wartime mobilisation .......................................................................................... 32 Examining the mechanisms .............................................................................................. 35 Conclusions from within-community analysis ................................................................. 37 VI. UMBUMBULU ................................................................................................................ 39 Post-war violence ............................................................................................................. 39 Type of wartime mobilisation .......................................................................................... 40 Examining the mechanisms .............................................................................................. 43 Conclusions from within-community analysis ................................................................. 45 VII. BHAMBAYI ................................................................................................................... 47 Post-war violence ............................................................................................................. 47 Type of wartime mobilisation .......................................................................................... 48 Examining the mechanisms .............................................................................................. 50 Conclusions from within-community analysis ................................................................. 52 VIII. COMPARING THE COMMUNITIES ...................................................................... 54 The prevalence of post-war violence ............................................................................... 54 7 Why the type of wartime mobilisation matters ................................................................ 55 Comparing the mechanisms ............................................................................................. 56 Additional observations .................................................................................................... 57 Alternative explanations ................................................................................................... 58 Critical reflections ............................................................................................................ 60 IX. CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 63 Main conclusions .............................................................................................................. 63 Local solutions to local problems ..................................................................................... 64 Future research ................................................................................................................. 65 Epilogue ........................................................................................................................... 66 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 67 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................. 73 List of interviews .............................................................................................................. 73 Interview questions .........................................................................................................