NOTE TO USERS Page(s) missing in number only; text follows. Page(s) were scanned as received. 66 Page(s) not included in the original manuscript and are not available from the author or university. The manuscript was scanned as received. This reproduction is the best copy available. UMI UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE AGRICULTURAL LABOR, RACE, AND INDIAN POLICY ON THE ROUND VALLEY RESERVATION, 1850-1941 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By WILLIAM J. BAUER, JR. Norman, Oklahoma 2003 UMI Number: 3093581 UMI UMI Microform 3093581 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ©Copyright by William J. Bauer, Jr. 2003 All Rights Reserved AGRICULTURAL LABOR, RACE, AND INDIAN POLICY ON THE ROUND VALLEY RESERVATION, 1850-1941 A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY Albert Hurtado R. Warren Metcalf lara Sue Kidwell Donald Pisani Sean O'Neill Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance of numerous people. The staffs of various libraries and research collections helped immensely - Georgina Wright at the Round Valley Public Library allowed me to access the Round Valley Oral History Project and the library's sole computer with internet access. The staff at the Held-Poage Historical House in Ukiah, California helped immensely in finding research materials. John Lovett at the Western History Collection at the University of Oklahoma supplied reports from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. I am indebted to Lisa Miller at the Pacific Sierra Branch of the National Archives and Records Administration in San Bruno, California, who recommended collections that were extremely helpful. I could not have completed this dissertation without her suggestion. Lisa Gezelter at the National Archives and Records Administration in Laguna Niguel painstakingly spent a week culling the student case files for Sherman Indian Institute. The fourth chapter of this dissertation could not have been completed without her hard and diligent work. I would also like to thank the staff of the Bancroft Library, the California State Archives, and the William L. Clements IV Library at the University of Michigan for their assistance as well. A number of institutions provided financial support for dissertation research. I wish to thank the Western History Association, the American Philosophical Society, the American Historical Association, the Historical Society of Southern California, the Southwest Oral History Association, and the Graduate Student Senate, the Graduate College and the History Department at the University of Oklahoma for their financial support. Finally, the D'Arcy McNickle Center at the Newberry Library for provided two months in Chicago, where I revised this dissertation. I wish to thank the following people who commented on various drafts of this project and allowed for its presentation at various conferences. Dr. Delores McBroome at California State University at Humboldt invited me to Areata to present a portion of this research at the W.K. Kellogg Foundation American Indian Civics Project in February 2000. I was extremely grateful for the opportunity present my findings there and I thank Dr. McBroome for her hospitality. I would like to thank the following people who commented on various manifestations of this proj ect at conferences : V Mark Barringer Corie Delashaw, Patricia Dixon, Lisa Emmerich, Brian Hosmer, Patti Loughlin, Kathryn Molohon, and Colleen O'Niell. Numerous colleagues also helped with the completion of this project. Members of Albert Hurtado's seminar on the American West, Warren Metcalf's seminar on Native Americans in the twentieth century, and Robert Shalhope's seminar on American Civil War made helpful suggestions during the various stages of this dissertation. I would also like to thank Floyd Barney for tracking down the names and relatives of a few people in this thesis. Linda English and David Loving provided emotional support during our summer preparing for our comprehensive exams. I thank them for our weekly meetings that, more than anything else, supplied some levity for that exhausting progress. Dan Cobb has been a good friend during the past few years. He is a consummate scholar and I appreciate his ability to make people around him think harder about their projects. Jeff Means and Matt Despain read various drafts of this dissertation as well, and provided excellent insight. Finally, I need to recognize my coffee partner Brad Raley - he knows his contribution. I am sure many people thought we were glued to the seats in Bizzell Library's coffee bar. I am not sure that he VI will miss me nagging him about his own manuscript, but I sure will miss seeing him every day. On the other hand, I will not miss losing to him in fantasy football every year. Of course, no dissertation can be completed without a committee and I was blessed with one without peers. Sean 0 'Neill and Donald Pisani were recent additions to Team Bauer. I thank them for their keen insight into California agricultural history and anthropology. Who would have guessed that the University of Oklahoma would be a hotbed of research on California history. Clara Sue Kidwell was instrumental in helping me come to the University of Oklahoma. Her wit and intelligence were always welcome. I worked with Warren Metcalf throughout my tenure at the University of Oklahoma. It seemed as if I was his teaching assistant for all of my time in Oklahoma. I hope he knows how much I learned from him as to how to be a scholar, teacher, and mentor. Finally, I had the great fortune of having Albert Hurtado as my advisor. For a California Indian researching and writing about California Indian history, Al has no peers as an advisor. I would like to think that he will miss our weekly conferences about my dissertation, but I have a sneaking suspicion that his office hours will be a little Vll quieter now that I am gone. I hope this dissertation fulfilled his expectations and can stand as a successor to his fine work. I would also express my sincere gratitude to the University of Wyoming for hiring me without having this document finished. Ron Schultz, Kris Utterback, Becky Riley and the entire faculty and staff at Wyoming made me feel at home during my interview, even though the weather refused to cooperate. I am not sure what they were thinking when they offered me the position of assistant professor of American Indian Ethnohistory, but I hope this and my future performance exceed the potential they see. I need to thank my parents, William and Deborah, for their love and support. I truly could not have done this without them. I also need to thank my brother Earl, his wife Jennifer, and my niece Gracie for allowing me to stay with them while I conducted oral interviews. I was probably a pain, but I really miss spending time with them. I hope that I can find more research projects in Round Valley, if only to spend a week out the month with them. The Round Valley Tribal Government and the people of the Round Valley Reservation welcomed me home with open arms. The Tribal Council provided financial Vlll assistance and logistical help with coordinating the oral interviews for this project. I thank Robert and Barbara Anderson, June Britton, Kathleen Cook, Francis Crabtree, "Pie" Frazier, Arvella Freeman, Claude Hoaglen, the late Lorraine McLane, Barbara Pina, and Joe Russ, Sr. for consenting to interviews. They made this dissertation a truly special project. I also thank my Grammer, Anita Rome for sharing her stories with me. Writing this dissertation has been all the more special because I got to know her a little better. Finally, to my wife Kendra and our daughter Temerity, I also offer a word of thanks. I thank Kendra for her love and indefatigable spirit while reading the many incarnations of my dissertation. She has been extraordinarily helpful and always has time to listen to me complain. She has also agreed to move to Laramie, Wyoming with me, something that took, and continues to take, a lot of persuasion. Thanks for always being there, and here's to the future. Last, but certainly not least. Temerity made this process a little longer and a little more enjoyable. We spent many evenings watching The Simpsons and fighting over her bedtime. This is a story about our people. I hope that she will read this someday and understand that any errors are her fault (and Brad's). IX Tabla of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABBREVIATIONS iLx INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: CONTACT AND LABOR IN ROUND VALLEY, 22 1850-1865 CHAPTER 2: WAGES OF SURVIVAL: LABOR DURING THE 67 PEACE POLICY, 1865-1880 CHAPTER 3: FROM WORKING CLASS TO^WORKING CLASS: 107 LABOR AND THE GENERAL ALLOTMENT Act, 1880-1900 CHPATER 4: "SO I CAN GET WORK THERE": LABOR AND 152 INDIAN EDUCATION IN CALIFORNIA, 1870-1945 CHAPTER 5: "EVERYBODY WAS SELF SUPPORTING": 191 INDIAN MULTISOURCE INCOMES BEFORE WORLD WAR II CHAPTER 6: ROUNDHOUSES, RECREATION, AND LABOR ON 219 THE ROUND VALLEY RESERVATION CHAPTER 7: "WELL, MR. KROEBER": INDIANS, 253 ANTHROPOLOGISTS, AND A LIVING WAGE CHAPTER 8: INDIANS, LABOR AND POVERTY DURING THE 271 THE GREAT DEPRESSION CHAPTER 9: A MAN WITH A HISTORY: CHARLES WRIGHT 2 92 ON THE ROUND VALLEY RESERVATION, 1850-1941 CONCLUSION 314 BIBLIOGRAPHY 328 X AaGBEVTATIONS 1880 MS Census National Archives, Microfilm 1791, Schedules of a Special Census of Indians, 1880, roll 5 Administrative National Archives and Records Administration - San Files Bruno, Record Group 75, Records of the Round Valley Agency, 1858-1930, Administrative Files, 1908-1924.