Title Page THE ADEQUACY AND EFFICACY OF ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING LEGISLATIONS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF ELECTRONIC BANKING AND INFORMAL REMITTANCE SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO NIGERIA AND SOUTH AFRICA Submitted in furtherance of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) at th e UNIVERSITY OF LONDON INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED LEGAL STUDIES TIMINIPERE DAVID 1 Declaration I declare that the work presented in this dissertation is mine alone. Timinipere David March 21, 2018 2 ABSTRACT In recent times, international, regional and local legislation has been couched to strengthen anti-corruption institutions and deter corrupt public officials from syphoning public wealth for their benefits, but this has continued unabated in spite of some successes recorded from these anti-graft agencies. Electronic banking notable for timeliness in executing transfers have helped in facilitating ease of doing business and as well accelerated the transfer of illicit wealth to secrecy jurisdictions. So regardless of internal and prudential controls instituted by regulatory authorities to ensure transparency in handling transactions and the reporting requirements for suspicious transactions, money laundering persists. Tracing and recovering the loot becomes another financial, legal and inter-state hurdle on the part of law enforcement agencies while the perpetrators live in exquisite luxury believing that the loot is their fair share of the ‘national cake.' This dissertation sought to assess the adequacy and efficacy of anti-money laundering legislation given the complexities of the local environment: namely nepotism, weak institutions, and predominance of a cash-based economy, lack of independence and the politicisation of corruption. First, we consider the enormity of the problem of corruption and its effect on developing countries with due regard to security, judicial fairness and stability of the economy. After that is an examination of international and local money laundering initiatives with a considerable emphasis on the United Nations Convention against Corruption and the role of the Financial Intelligence Unit in providing intelligence for tracing of corrupt proceeds. The researcher asserts that anti-money laundering legislation will be efficacious where good governance prevails and the incentives for corruption including nepotism and prebendal attitudes are discouraged. A State, which provides social safety nets for its populace, would strengthen the anti- corruption fight thereby discouraging new entrants into public office positions from graft and abuse of those positions of authority. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................................................ 1 DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................. 2 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... 8 TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................. 9 TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ................................................................................................................ 14 TABLE OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... 17 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 18 CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 28 WHY IS ECONOMIC CRIME A PROBLEM FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES? ....... 28 1.1 The Prevalence of Corruption in Sub Saharan Africa. ..................................... 31 1.2 The Cultural Perspective of Corruption ............................................................ 42 1.3 Corruption and Its Effect on Development ....................................................... 48 1.4 Economic Crimes and Sustainable Development ............................................ 51 1.5 Economic Crimes Impugns Physical Fairness And Stability ............................ 61 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................... 68 SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MONEY LAUNDERING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES .............................................................................................................. 68 2.1 Money Laundering Defined ............................................................................. 69 2.1.1 Money Laundering in The Real Estate Sector ................................................. 85 2.1.2 Security Votes and Money Laundering ............................................................ 88 2.2 Capital Flight ................................................................................................... 94 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................... 109 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL MONEY LAUNDERING INITIATIVES . 109 3.1 The United Nations Organization. .................................................................. 112 4 3.1.1 Vienna Convention of 1988 ........................................................................... 112 3.1.2 Palermo Convention in 2000 ......................................................................... 115 3.1.3 The United Nations Convention Against Corruption ....................................... 116 3.2 African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption ............. 122 3.3 Council of Europe .......................................................................................... 128 3.4 The Financial Action Task Force ................................................................... 132 3.5 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) ....... 137 3.6 The Egmont Group of Financial Intelligence Units ......................................... 139 3.7 The Wolfsberg Anti-Money Laundering Principles ......................................... 140 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 143 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................ 144 NON-INTERNATIONAL MONEY LAUNDERING RELATED LAW .................................................... 144 4.1 Anti Money Laundering/Anti-Corruption Agencies ......................................... 146 4.1 The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (Establishment) Act 2004 .... 148 4.1.1 Functions of the Commission ......................................................................... 149 4.1.2 Offences ....................................................................................................... 151 4.1.3 Seizure and forfeiture of assets ..................................................................... 153 4.2 The Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) ...................................................................................................................... 161 4.3 Anti-corruption agencies in South Africa ........................................................ 168 4.4 Laws on Money Laundering .......................................................................... 170 4.4.1 The Money Laundering (Prohibition) Act 2012 as Amended - Nigeria ............ 171 4.4.1.1 Account Opening and Specific Prohibitions ............................................ 173 4.4.1.2 The Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act No 12 of 2004 – South Africa ............................................................................................................. 177 4.4.1.3 The Financial Intelligence Centre Act, No. 30 of 2001 (FICA), Act No. 33 of 2004, No. 11 of 2008, No 11 of 2013 and No. 1 of 2017 – South Africa ................... 183 4.4.1.4 Public Proctector Report on State Capture ............................................. 193 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 197 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................................. 200 5 INTERNET BANKING AND MONEY LAUNDERING RISK ............................................................... 200 5.1 Electronic Banking ......................................................................................... 202 5.2 Controls Over Wire Transfer and Correspondence Banking Operations ........ 206 5.2.1 Chips and Swifts...........................................................................................