University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2013 Spectacle, Sacrifice and the State: The Legacy of urE opean Fascism and the Revival of Martyrdom in the Modern World Gerald Robert Pace University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Comparative Politics Commons, and the International and Area Studies Commons Recommended Citation Pace, Gerald Robert, "Spectacle, Sacrifice and the State: The Legacy of urE opean Fascism and the Revival of Martyrdom in the Modern World" (2013). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 493. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/493 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. Spectacle, Sacrifice and the State: The Legacy of European Fascism and the Revival of Martyrdom in the Modern World __________ A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy __________ By Gerald Robert Pace March 2013 Advisor: Micheline Ishay, Ph.D. © Copyright by Gerald Robert Pace 2013 All Rights Reserved ii Author: Gerald Robert Pace Title: Spectacle, Sacrifice and the State: The Legacy of European Fascism and the Revival of Martyrdom in the Modern World Advisor: Micheline Ishay, Ph.D. Degree Date: March 2013 Abstract The rise of political martyrdom in the contemporary world is not a new phenomenon but can be traced back to at least the early Twentieth Century with the rise of European Fascist movements. Both they, and the fascist-like movements of today, share a cluster of characteristics that allow for fruitful comparisons of the ways in which martyrdom spectacles are used to communicate with constituent populations, facilitate a culture of violence, perpetuate their revolutionary zeal and demonstrate the characteristics of the ideal citizen. Examining four major movements; Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, the Palestinian Hamas and the modern Iran, this dissertation argues that 1) the use of martyrdom by today’s fascist-like fundamentalists is not unique, but follows a well-known path taken by the earlier fascist movements of the twentieth century; 2) martyrdom spectacles can be used to build support within the population and present a narrative of the ideal citizen; 3) there are different uses of martyrdom spectacles between the regime phase and the movement phase for both fascist and fascist-like movements. By exploring the relationship between martyrdom spectacles and their disciplining nature, we can iii better understand the logic of contemporary fundamentalist movements and the techniques they used to achieve power and maintain control. iv Table of Contents Chapter One: The Spectacle of Martyrdom and the Politics of Radical Extremism .... 1 A Case for the Comparison of Martyrdom Spectacles in Fascist and Fascist-Like Movements .............................................................................................................. 18 Ideological Comparison ...................................................................................... 18 Socio-Economic and Political Contexts .............................................................. 28 On Spectacle, Martyrdom and Fundamentalism: Understanding Terms ................ 31 The Power of Spectacle ...................................................................................... 31 Academic Treatment of Martyrdom ................................................................... 35 From Martyrdom as Ritual to Martyrdom as Spectacle .......................................... 40 Fascism and Fundamentalism in the Literature .......................................................... 46 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................... 55 Chapter Two: The Rise of Fascism and the Sanctity of Violence .............................. 59 Introduction, Foundational Narratives: The March on Rome and the Beer Hall Putsch ...................................................................................................................... 59 The Interwar Period: The Economic Context and the Fragmentation of Political Legitimacy .............................................................................................................. 62 The Economic Crisis ........................................................................................... 62 The Fragmentation of Political Legitimacy ........................................................ 70 The Spectacle of Martyrdom and Construction of the Fascist Myth ...................... 93 Fascism as Movement: On the Historical Significance of the Movements’ First Martyrs ................................................................................................................ 94 The Spectacle of Martyrdom within the Fascism as Regime Phase ................. 101 Chapter Three: The Resurgence of Fascism-like Movements: Martyrdom in the Contemporary World ................................................................................................ 121 Introduction: The Cases of Iran and Hamas ......................................................... 121 Suicidal Martyrdom and Islamists Movements: A Discussion on Terms ............. 126 Martyrdom Spectacles in Iran ............................................................................... 129 The Foundation: Karbala .................................................................................. 129 The First Iranian Blood Martyrs: the Black Friday Massacres ......................... 132 The Black Friday Massacre .............................................................................. 132 Black Friday in Context .................................................................................... 133 The Basij ........................................................................................................... 134 The Basij in Context and the legacy of Behesht-e Zahra and the Central Martyr’s Museum in Tehran ............................................................................................ 137 Martyrdom Spectacles in the Internet Age—the Case of Hamas ......................... 142 Hamas’ “First” Martyr: the spectacle of Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam ........... 143 The Social and Economic Context Leading Up to the Adoption of the al-Qassam Model: From Israeli Occupation to Semi-Autonomy ....................................... 145 Martyrdom Spectacles in the Internet Age ....................................................... 151 v Concluding Chapter: The Spectacle of Violence and the Evolution of Martyrdom and Religious Extremism in the Information Age ........................................................... 169 The Impact of Technology on the Dissemination and Power of Spectacle .......... 171 The Spectacle of 18BL ...................................................................................... 173 The Spectacle of Farfour ................................................................................... 179 The Sacrarium of Martyrs and the Museum of Martyrs Contrasted ................. 181 Some Concluding Thoughts and Analysis: On the End of Martyrdom and Fascism in the Modern World ............................................................................................. 183 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 188 Appendix ................................................................................................................... 209 vi Chapter One: The Spectacle of Martyrdom and the Politics of Radical Extremism The attacks of September 11th dramatically reshaped the debate surrounding terrorism in the modern world. Belligerent religious fundamentalists, harboring an antipathy for democracy and liberal individualism, transformed the seemingly sacred concept of martyrdom into a weapon of war. Yet despite the shocking nature of the attacks, there is a resonance in this rhetoric of martyrdom and in the spectacles surrounding these events that is reminiscent of earlier illiberal movements. This dissertation argues that; 1) the use of martyrdom by today’s fascist-like fundamentalists is not unique, but follows a well-known path taken by the earlier fascist movements of the twentieth century; 2) martyrdom spectacles can be used to build support within the population and present a narrative of the ideal citizen; 3) there are different uses of martyrdom spectacles between the regime phase and the movement phase for both fascist and fascist-like movements. By exploring the relationship between martyrdom spectacles and their disciplining nature, we can better understand the logic of contemporary fundamentalist movements and the techniques they used to achieve power and maintain control. 1 Mussolini defined fascism as a political synthesis of democracy and monarchy in the office of the Duce1 who would represent the interests of the state rather than the individual (liberal democracy) or the royal family (monarchy). Economically, fascism serves as a synthesis of the prevailing economic systems of capitalism and socialism through the corporate syndicalist