4 Introduction In 1967, in Marburg an der Lahn and Frankfurt ‘subtypes’ of a novel agent named ‘Ebola virus’ am Main, Germany1, and in Belgrade, Yugoslavia after the small Ebola river in Zaire [412, 1000, (now Serbia), laboratory workers accepted shipments 2410]. Today these ‘subtypes’ are called Sudan of African green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) ebolavirus (SEBOV) and Zaire ebolavirus (ZEBOV), from Uganda. As they had done many times before respectively [805]. Studies of periodic hemorrhagic with such animals, workers performed routine ex- fever outbreaks in African countries and in the aminations for apparent ailments and then prepared Philippines indicated that at least two more ebola- tissue cultures from the monkeys’ kidneys for the viruses exist, which are now known as the Coote^ development of poliomyelitis vaccines. A few days d’Ivoire ebolavirus (CIEBOV) and Reston ebola- later, several workers were reported ill and were virus (REBOV) [805]. Molecular and other studies admitted to local hospitals. A total of 32 people revealed the close relationship of MARV and the fell sick with an apparently new disease, of which ebolaviruses, which resulted in their classification seven died. A hitherto unknown virus was isolated in the same viral family, Filoviridae (the filo- from patients and human tissues [2396] and called viruses2) [805]. ‘Marburg virus’ (today Lake Victoria marburgvirus, A substantial interest in filoviruses has developed MARV) [805]. Over the subsequent three decades, among the general public, in part because of novels, only individual MARV infections were recorded. popular science stories, and Hollywood productions In 1998, the virus reappeared in the Democratic that portrayed the horrendous diseases they cause. Republic of the Congo and caused at least 128 deaths Richard Preston’s articles and his very successful over a period of three years [270]. From the end of book, The Hot Zone [2057–2059], which is based 2004 to November 2005, MARV caused an outbreak on actual disease outbreaks caused by filoviruses, killing 227 people in Angola. captured the imagination of the public for months. In 1976, novel viruses were isolated from many Scholars remarked that the book was a bestseller patients of two large hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in mainly because Preston managed to describe filo- Maridi, Sudan, and Yambuku, Zaire (now Demo- viruses as an ‘‘external threat to Americans in a cratic Republic of the Congo) that resulted in the post-Cold War world with porous borders’’ [1097] death of 431 of 602 infected people. These new pathogens were characterized as two different 2 In 2006, taxon-specific suffixes were suggested for verna- cular virus names. According to that system, the suffixes 1 In this review, countries are designated according to their ‘-virad’, ‘-virid’, ‘-virin’, and ‘-virus’ are used for members English conventional short name as listed in The World Fact of a viral order (‘-virales’), family (‘-viridae’), subfamily Book [Online.] https:==www.cia.gov=cia=publications= (‘-virinae’), or genus (‘-virus’), respectively [2636]. This factbook=index.html [last accessed Sep. 1, 2007]. Names system appears to be practical but it is not yet widely accepted. are used for simplicity of recognition and are not intended as Therefore, in this review the terms ‘mononegaviruses’ and political statements regarding the official recognition (or ‘filoviruses’ are used rather than the more discriminating lack thereof) of a given country. novel terms ‘mononegavirads’ and ‘filovirids’. 14 Introduction that tap ‘‘into fears about travel and immigration’’ children, has fueled all these concerns. A new sub- [2440]. Accordingly, ebolaviruses ‘‘...emerge as a genre of horror movies, termed plague films [2728], key metaphor for the ambivalence, if not alarm, amplified the public’s concern. These productions about a new world order, one characterized by [41, 73, 87, 115, 116, 2252, 2666] include a very multi-sites of geo-political power and the displace- successful Hollywood movie, Outbreak [65], and ment of the privileged ... western European civi- individual episodes of popular U.S. television series lization in the face of rapid movement of peoples (Medical Investigation – Season 1 Episode 17, and cultural practices along expanding circuits of Millennium – Season 2 Episode 22 and Season 3 global capitalism’’ [1097]. In Hamilton, Canada, Episode 11, ReGenesis – Season 1 Episode 11, 24 – widespread panic was noted and fueled by the media season 3, 7 Days – Season 1 Episode 3, and CSI: in 2001 after a Congolese woman, who had just Crime Scene Investigation – Season 5 Episode arrived by plane from Ethiopia, became sick with 4). Most of the plague films disregard scientific an illness that was at first thought to be ebolavirus facts and focus on the ‘‘rhetorically constructed, disease [1825]. An analysis of the media response predatory nature of the virus’’ to attract interest suggests that increasing anxiety among Canadians [2728]. The same seems to be true for popular sci- over the growing presence of racial minorities was entific articles, which often display the filoviruses at the root of the ‘‘Ebola panic.’’ According to the as killers with a will [2255]. Comparative analyses study, immigration was made an issue by the demonstrated that fictitious work and Hollywood involved Canadian media by linking it to possible productions portraying filoviruses are construed future health risks for Canadians – that is, linking similarly [2302]. It was also found that scientific immigration to possible importation of filoviruses journal articles, popular science writing, and science [162]. Other researchers indirectly concur with this fiction have become ‘‘mutually, minutely entangled’’ assessment by interpreting the public’s morbid because emerging viruses ‘‘have attained a certain interest in emerging infectious diseases as a reflec- chic among the medical set’’ [2255]. Fascination tion of people’s fear of social change – and the fear with hazardous viral infectious diseases and the of ‘‘disintegration of self or of nation; Armageddon; ‘‘virus hunters’’ who track them [587] has grown the triumph of multiculturism and the global com- to such an extent that an increasing number of so- munity; the ecosystem’s anger and vengeance for cial scientists and scholars outside the fields of our meddling; the loss of the unknown; or the escape medicine and life sciences have begun to study the of the unknown into our society, where everything public interest in this topic [302, 303, 431, 1097, familiar will be destroyed ...’’ [2255]. Filoviruses 1295, 1408, 1609, 1708, 1766, 1804, 2255, 2302, seem to cause ‘‘the mythical disease of our time’’ 2419, 2440, 2584, 2626, 2702, 2728]. Poets [2517] [2440]. Another expert argues that, via Preston’s and artists [1498] seem to be inspired by filoviruses; book and a Hollywood movie, ebolaviruses have be- literature analysts have suggested that an ebolavirus come an icon of the anti-globalization movement. disease outbreak might have inspired Edgar Allan Accordingly, the viruses indicate a change of the Poe to write The Masque of the Red Death [2667]; public image of rain forests, which once were de- and investigators used ‘‘Ebola’’ as a catch phrase to picted as fragile, quasi-romantic places that had to draw attention to their articles, several of which did be protected for their own sake and which now are actually not pertain to filoviruses [241, 593, 1383, seen as threats to western civilization because of 2642]. By now, incorrect notions about these agents diseases they harbor and ‘‘export’’ (‘‘revenge of (high transmissibility, ‘‘liquefying organs,’’ ‘‘crash- the rain forest’’) [2936]. An ever increasing volume ing patients’’ that ‘‘bleed out’’, etc.) are stereotypi- of written work [184, 444, 569, 570, 604, 677b, cal wisdom or urban legends [2727] that are difficult 708, 750, 861, 970, 1009, 1013, 1147, 1156, to eradicate. Exaggerations and pseudoscientific 1189, 1337, 1610, 1654, 1984, 2068, 2110, 2415, descriptions of ebolaviruses have fueled doomsday 2425, 2744], computer games, and audio plays ad- scenarios focusing on possible pandemics. For ex- dressing the filoviruses, aimed at both adults and ample, an analysis of British tabloids and broad- Introduction 15 sheets revealed that many described ‘‘liquefying, published books addressing public fears and have disintegrating, combusting bodies’’ when referring attempted to correct false notions about these to filovirus-infected people [1295]. The public press pathogens [584, 592, 619, 791, 907, 1135, 1326, covers even the most remote and non-extensive 1395, 1701, 1932, 2006, 2069, 2102, 2188, 2215, occurrence of filoviral disease, perhaps stirring 2941]. Their success in correcting the public image the public’s fear of worldwide spread. In addition, of filoviruses was limited, in part because the lan- there have been insinuations that filoviruses were guage used clearly showed that some authors also man-made [1172, 2254] or are spread deliberately were fascinated with or frightened by the agents by the military [201, 1755] or ecological groups [2419]. For example, one researcher called Zaire [2641]. Such rumors were spread during a larger ebolavirus a ‘‘mysterious’’ agent with ‘‘epidemic outbreak in Kikwit, Zaire, in 1995, when a biolog- genius’’ [1053]. ical weapon based on an ebolavirus was suspected Infectious agents are assigned to biosafety catego- by locals to be the underlying cause of the outbreak ries, based on documented accounts of laboratory [1395]. The scarce and