Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. ‘Feels a bit naughty when you're a mum': Alcohol use amongst mothers with preschool children A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology Massey University, Manawatū, Aotearoa/New Zealand Michelle Pedersen 2019 Abstract Over the past two decades, young New Zealand women have consumed alcohol in a culture of normalised intoxication, aligned with postfeminist and neoliberal values of autonomy, fun and freedom of choice. As these women transition into motherhood, they are exposed to contradictory messages on alcohol. Targeted by growing media and advertising messages encouraging alcohol use as a coping strategy for motherhood, they are also expected to conform to ‘good’ mothering ideology. With very little research in this area, the current study aimed to explore the way mothers of preschool children talk about their current alcohol use, their past alcohol use in young adulthood, other mothers’ alcohol use and their partner’s alcohol use. Using a gendered approach the goal was to develop an understanding of how these mothers accepted, resisted and negotiated meanings on alcohol use in early motherhood and how their drinking was negotiated with their partners and parental responsibilities. Following ethical approval, seven friendship discussion groups, involving 30 mothers between ages 28 and 41 were conducted in Wellington, New Zealand. Transcribed discussions were subject to Foucauldian discourse analysis, which showed that the women drew upon the ‘work hard, play hard’ and ‘developmental age and stage’ discourses to normalise excessive drinking and experimentation in young adulthood. In comparison, current drinking was discussed as routine and constructed as a ‘reward’, for ‘relaxation’ and as a form of ‘adult time out’, providing these mothers with a way to cope and a brief escape from the demands of mothering. Unlike fathers’ drinking, which was constructed as ‘masculine’, the mothers’ drinking was highly policed and sanctioned through public ‘surveillance’ and their own ‘self-monitoring’. Mothers who deviated from idealised expectations of ‘good’ mothering were seen as lower-class. Although a ‘considerate family man’ discourse was drawn upon, it was the mothers who still took on the primary caregiving role. They often instigated couple negotiations on who was drinking and it was frequently their drinking (rather than fathers) that was restricted due to parental responsibilities. Findings are discussed in terms of what this means for public health campaigns, women’s access to alcohol support as well as wider implications for gender relations. i ii Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank the 30 women who generously gave up their time to share their mothering and drinking experiences with me. It is a tall order asking new mothers with babies and young children to make time in their busy lives to participate. Without your voices this research would not have occurred. A special thank you to Julia for going above and beyond as a friend, helping with recruitment. To my three academic supervisors, Dr Antonia Lyons, Dr Chris Stephens and Dr Paul Merrick, thank you for your enduring support. Your timely feedback was always the right mix of encouragement, with the critique required to develop this thesis and improve my critical analysis and writing skills. Antonia, as my primary supervisor you have been an inspirational, academic role model. No words will adequately describe how grateful I am for your support and understanding, both academically and non-academically. Chris, your knowledge and guidance was equally appreciated, particularly in the earlier and later stages of this thesis. Paul, I appreciate your kind words of encouragement and for sharing your expertise in clinical psychology with me. Furthermore, I am sincerely grateful to Massey University for awarding me with a doctoral scholarship, which made a significant financial contribution towards this study. I would also like to thank my partner Luke. My dream of pursuing a career in psychology resulted in some major upheaval for our family. I am very appreciative for your support. I would also like to thank my mum and mother in law, for contributing significant hours of childcare and other help while I worked on this thesis and fulfilled the clinical practicum hours required. To my wider family, friends and psychology peers who offered encouragement, support and advice, thank you. Catherine and Lissa, I truly appreciate all your wise words and motivating ‘check-ins’, towards the end. It was by becoming a mother that my idea for this research began. Zachary and Theo, thank you for giving me the best experience of all. Completing this research has been far more enjoyable with all your singing, dancing, play fights and cuddles along the way. Lastly, my wonderful ‘PIN’ group also requires a special thank you. Our catch-ups provided not only moral support for our wild adventure into new parenthood, but also gave me the idea for this study. iii iv Table of contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. iii Table of contents .................................................................................................... v List of Tables ......................................................................................................... ix Preface ................................................................................................................... xi Structure of thesis ................................................................................................................ xii Chapter 1: An introduction to women, alcohol and New Zealand’s drinking culture ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Alcohol use amongst New Zealand Women ............................................................ 1 1.2 Alcohol Consumption Guidelines .............................................................................. 3 1.3 Major factors influencing women’s drinking ............................................................ 4 1.3.1 Changing gender roles ................................................................................ 4 1.3.2 Availability of alcohol in New Zealand ................................................... 6 1.3.3 Alcohol advertising, media representation and identity construction . 7 1.3.4 Social acceptance of everyday and heavy alcohol use............................ 9 1.3.5 Culture of ‘controlled’ intoxication and calculated hedonism ........... 11 1.3.6 The conflicting role of alcohol in everyday life ................................... 12 1.4 Risks associated with alcohol use ............................................................................ 13 1.4.1 Effect on children and families .............................................................. 14 1.4.2 Mental health and alcohol....................................................................... 16 1.5 Benefits of drinking ................................................................................................... 17 1.6 Importance of the current study .............................................................................. 18 1.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 2: Postpartum alcohol use ....................................................................... 21 2.1 Postpartum alcohol use within New Zealand........................................................ 22 2.2 Postpartum alcohol use in Australia ....................................................................... 22 2.3 Postpartum alcohol use in the United States ......................................................... 25 2.4 Postpartum alcohol use in the U.K. ....................................................................... 27 2.5 Limitations and Summary ........................................................................................ 29 Chapter 3: Motherhood ......................................................................................... 31 3.1 Contemporary Motherhood in New Zealand ....................................................... 31 3.1.1 Gendered parenting changes .................................................................. 32 3.1.2 The movement towards ‘expert’ knowledge ........................................ 34 3.2 The ideology of motherhood ..................................................................................... 35 3.2.1 Good and bad mothers ........................................................................... 38 3.2.2 Intensive mothering................................................................................. 39 v 3.2.3 Mother blame ............................................................................................ 40 3.3 Reality versus ideology............................................................................................... 41 3.4 Resisting the ideology ...............................................................................................