Polarities of Difference: How Wapichannao Negotiate Identities within a Creole State Stacy A A Hope A Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of St. Andrews September 2008 I, Stacy A. A. Hope, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 81,097 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in September 2004 and as a candidate for the degree of PhD in Social Anthropology in September 2005; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between [year] and [year]. Date 30th September 2008 Signature of candidate ………………. 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Signature of the Pro Dean of Arts & Divinity (Postgraduate): Abstract This thesis is an ethnographic account of how the Wapichannao, who are situated in the Rupununi of Guyana perceive themselves within the nation-state. This is also an account of how non-Amerindian Guyanese envisage Amerindians as ‘past’ peoples. Hence, distinctions are made between Amerindian and non-Amerindian—us vs. them—where both identities become placed as opposite poles within a continuum. Emphasis is placed on the shifting relationships between these poles, but more specifically, the cultural paradigm through which these relationships are made possible. This paradigm, I suggest, may be understood in terms of polarities of difference, with regard to which Amerindians are constantly ambiguating/negotiating, disjoining, and resignifying notions of ‘who they are’. This thesis evidences this paradigm through an ethnography of some of those aspects of Wapichannao culture—village work, the shop, joking activity, culture shows—that are considered to be traditional on the one hand, and modern on the other. In doing so, an incongruous trend emerges, on which makes the classic imagery of Amerindian ontological homogeneity much more complex. Therefore, this thesis moves from the more traditional aspects of Wapichannao culture towards the nation-state, in order to take into account aspects of Amerindian experience absent from classic ethnographic accounts. Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my Family and to Navada ‘Stinky’ Fernandes (21st February 1984 - 31st January 2008) Table of Contents List of Maps List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgements 1 Introduction 2 I. I am NOT a Rastaman 5 Chapters in Continuum 11 Chapter 1: Approaching Bush Rope Village 21 I. 21 Colonial Encounters 28 Land Rights 30 II. The Approach 34 Layout 40 Inside Bush Rope 42 Chapter 2: Making a Living and Subsistence 53 I. Farming 56 Village Work 61 Hunting Practices 66 Fishing Practices 70 II: The Commodity Economy: Jawan T-Shirts and Maggi Cubes 73 Earning a living to Making a Living 75 Settling In: A typical day at the Andres 79 Chapter 3: Understanding Relationships: The Politics of Sharing 74 I. The Manore that Binds Us 87 20th May 2006: The Context 88 Levels of Participation 93 Modes of Relationship 95 II. Negotiating Manore 100 Give fuh Tek, Tek fuh Give 103 Sociability and Conviviality 107 III. Power of Politics, Politics of Power 110 Concluding Remarks 116 Chapter 4: Volume Control: Laughter and Gossip 119 I. Gossip Culture Where you are going and Where you are coming from 121 The Priest and I: Gossip 123 II. Knowing How to Laugh 129 The Philosophical Past 132 Mariidautan: The Lie 137 Laughing at the Powerful 139 Relationships and Power 143 III. Fearing Relationships 145 Meeting Uncle Leo 146 IV. Amerindian Theoretical Belief of the Doronaa 160 Spoiling 162 Christians amongst Us 167 Concluding Remarks 169 Chapter 5: Culture Shows and the Global Stage 171 I. Õgaru Wapichan and Defining “Identity” through Pageantry 174 Intra-cultural Misunderstandings 176 Cynitha and her Cassava Bread Conundrum 178 Learning to Negotiate Identity 182 II. Changing Societies and the Importance of Pageants in Performance 191 The Wider Stage 201 Politics as Performance 203 Concluding Remarks 206 Chapter 6: Patronage, Venezuelan Beer and Rum-Shop Culture 209 I. The Shop 212 Forming Alliance through Patronage 218 II. Drunken States and Shop Decorum 227 The Fundraiser Phenomenon 233 The Emergence of the Drunk 235 The Real Padatch and Liming Culture 239 Concluding Remarks 244 Chapter 7: “Buck Come to Town”: Hegemony, Cultural Ideology 247 and the Creole Continuum I. Culture and Ideology: “I whu you doing wid dem Buck people?” 250 Verbal Encounters over Chinese food 252 Educational and Linguistic Influences 259 II. Distinctions Misunderstood 268 Whu Buck Girl Know ‘bout Ice Apple? 271 III. Historicity and Amerindian Perspectives within the Creole Continuum 276 Ideology and Historicity of the Native 276 Amerindian Perspectivism within the Creole Continuum 280 The Creole Continuum Revisited 283 Conclusion: If I were the Minister of Amerindian Affairs… 295 I. ...the Polarities of Difference would NOT be my muse 295 II. No Nation-States for the Amerindians! 299 Concluding the Conclusion 302 Appendices 303 Bibliography 306 List of Maps Map 1: Showing Distribution of key Amerindian Villages 23 Map 2: Showing Southern Side of Bush Rope 40 Map 3: Showing Distribution of some Bush Rope Shops 214 List of Figures Figure 1: Showing Polarities of Difference 8 Figure 2: Showing Layout of Chief’s Compound 38 Figure 3: Showing Layout of Andre’s Compound 44 Figure 4: Showing Harvest Distribution of Crops 65 Figure 5: Showing Political Kin Relations 113 List of Tables Table 1: Showing Distribution of Labour within the household 47 Table 2: Showing Distribution of Labour on a Farm 64 Table 3: Showing Distribution of Labour on a Construction Site 94 Table 4: Showing how Social Relationships are distinguished 96 Table 5: Showing Socioeconomic Dualities 100 Table 6: Showing Cure to stop cuts from bleeding 151 List of Illustrations Illustration 1: Showing Removal of poison from Bitter Cassava 57 Illustration 2: Showing Elderly Men Preparing Cassava Shoots for Replanting 63 Illustration 3: Showing Manore at the Andre’s 90 Illustration 4: Showing Some Padatch Crew members at Sports Day 239 “You must Learn to Know” Elle Acknowledgement This thesis is based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted between December 2005 and March 2007 amongst the Wapichannao and non‐Amerindians of Guyana. The premise of this research was based on my MRes proposal, from which Chapter 7 is a continuation, supervised by Professor Peter Gow and Dr. Huon Wardle. Hence, I wish to start by acknowledging them as integral to my anthropological inquiry. However, it is Dr. Huon Wardle, who is responsible for supervising my progress through the PhD period; a great mentor, conversationalist, and Jamaican ‘wannabe’. During my MRes and writing‐up period, many members of the Department of Social Anthropology at St. Andrews, as well as external academics, were influential to my current anthropological outlook, so I wish to extend my gratitude to these people. Eduardo Viveiros de Castro and George Mentore answered most of my email questions about Amerindian Perspectivism and Guyanese Amerindianness. Joanna Overing gave generous time to explain kinship to me. Desrey Fox has been a major inspiration for me; being the only Amerindian with a PhD in Guyana she has extended her knowledge understanding of Amerindians to my consciousness. Tony Crook, Mark Harris, Tristan Platt and Stephanie Bunn gave great comments about my ideas during the initial stages of my thesis. Christina Torren and Roy Dilley for critiquing various chapters and ideas. Giovanna Bacchiddu, Eleni Bizas, Rodrigo Villagra Carron, Conrad Feather, Lucas Dreier, Paolo Fortis, Veronika Groke, Gemma John, Craig Lind, Margherita Margiotti, and Linda Scott for commenting extensively on different stages of my thesis. I also wish to show appreciation towards members of Conservation International – Guyana (2006) for giving me a chance to work on the WaiWais, and Marjorie Wilson and Joan Cambridge— sisters, Guyanese writers and artists who have inspired me on numerous occasions. Most evidently, I wish to thank the people of whom this thesis is about—the Wapichannao—but more specifically to (pseudonyms) Aunty Lizzie, Kara, Elle, Gerd, and Lenny for making me a part of their family; Chief, Aunty Dora, Natzy, Anton, Ronnie, Kirt and their families for engaging me with great conversation; the Padatch Crew; Aunty Bibi, Uncle Hoc, and the Kids for teaching me how to construct a hammock and shoot an arrow; Uncle Simon Marcelo for the numerous stories; Aunty Clarice and family; and all of Bush Rope for accepting my presence.