History of Geo- and Space Open Access Open Sciences Advances in Science & Research Open Access Proceedings Drinking Water Drinking Water Engineering and Science Engineering and Science Open Access Access Open Discussions Discussions Earth System Earth System Science Science Open Access Open Open Access Open Data Data Soc. Geogr., 5, 49–58, 2010 Discussions www.soc-geogr.net/5/49/2010/ doi:10.5194/sg-5-49-2010 Social Social © Author(s) 2010. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Open Access Open Geography Access Open Geography Dej´ a-vu:` tourist practices of repeat visitors in the city of Paris T. Freytag Institut fur¨ Kulturgeographie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat¨ Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany Received: 21 February 2008 – Published in Soc. Geogr. Discuss.: 17 March 2008 Revised: 9 November 2010 – Accepted: 17 November 2010 – Published: 1 December 2010 Abstract. In the context of sustained growth in European city tourism, competing travel destinations develop marketing strategies that include measures to attract an increasing number of repeat visitors. This paper ex- plores the case of Paris in order to provide a better understanding of the specific motivations, interests and activities of leisure tourists who had previously stayed in the capital of France. Drawing on Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of “distinction” it is argued that repeat visitors tend to differentiate themselves from other tourists. On the basis of substantive field work in Paris, a set of repeat visitor practices is presented that include strategies to avoid spatial concentrations of major tourist spots in order to participate in Parisian everyday life. Moreover, it is suggested to conceptualize the encounters between repeat visitors and tourism destinations as a lifelong relationship, which can be renewed and reproduced through further visits and virtual encounters. The distinct characteristics of repeat visitor practices have substantial implications for the organization of tourism in the city and the relationships between first-time tourists, repeat visitors and the local population. 1 Introduction Wachowiak, 2000). In Paris, a new tourism marketing strat- egy is being applied to increase the number of repeat visi- European city tourism has increased considerably over the tors. The aim is to stage more events and to promote a new past decade. Urban tourist destinations are particularly at- image of a young and trendy city, which is less centred on tractive for travelers who do not follow the traditional mode monuments and museums. The key slogans of the new strat- of concentrating their annual travel activities in a long sum- egy are: cosmopolitan Paris, creative Paris, and friendly Paris mer holiday in a sea or mountain resort, but prefer several (expert interview E; translated by author). However, the par- short vacations per year (Becker, 2000). With the exception ticular motivation, interests and activities of repeat visitors of small children and their families, more and more visitors still constitute a largely unexplored field in city tourism mar- of all ages feel particularly attracted by urban and metropoli- keting and academic research (Kozak, 2001; Wang, 2004). tan places. This has lead to considerable changes in the struc- Notwithstanding a growing interest in the consumption side ture and use of central cities (Knafou, 2007). The actual of urban tourism, many questions remain unanswered (Shaw growth in city tourism is also fuelled by transport companies et al., 2000; Selby, 2004). Can we identify specific practices (especially low-cost airlines) and travel agents who offer in- of repeat visitors that are distinct from the practices of other expensive trips and packages (Groß and Schroder,¨ 2007). In types of tourists? If so, why do repeat visitors choose specific addition, many cities have started to make significant invest- practices? And what are the implications for the visitors, the ments in tourism marketing as they observe the growing po- tourism promoters and the people living in the city? tential of tourism as major resource in the expanding service The aim of this paper is to provide a better understanding economy (Freyer, 2005). of tourist practices with a focus on repeat visitors who stay in In the context of an increasing competition between travel a city for leisure purposes. Drawing on the concept of “dis- destinations, city tourism promoters are turning their atten- tinction”, developed by the French sociologist Pierre Bour- tion to repeat visitors as a separate target group (Jagnow and dieu (1979), it is argued that repeat visitors tend to differ- entiate themselves from first time visitors and mass tourism. Based on several months of field work in Paris, it is suggested Correspondence to: T. Freytag that repeat visitors do not correspond to the traditional role ([email protected]) of a tourist (as portrayed, for example, in Hennig, 1999). Published by Copernicus Publications. 50 T. Freytag: Tourist practices of repeat visitors in the city of Paris The paper is divided into three main sections. The first Focusing on the consumption side of tourism it can be part gives a brief account of relevant definitions, followed by helpful to analyze social, cultural and economic practices explanatory remarks on methodology, conceptual framework (Urry, 1990; Crouch, 2004). Compared to behavioural ap- and field work for data collection. The second part provides proaches that understand tourist behaviour as a result of a a portrait of Paris as one of the leading city tourism desti- given structural and environmental context (Pearce, 1982, nations in the world. It will be discussed how the spatial 1988), the consideration of tourist practices attributes more organization of tourism has changed over time and what the autonomy to the individual and the social context (Giddens, currently most important tourist attractions and visitor activ- 1984). Tourist practices can be defined as a set of learned ities are. At the heart of this paper is an empirically informed competences and skills (including specific norms and expec- analysis of leisure tourist practices, which will be presented tations) articulated in routine activities and refering to tem- in the third part. The concluding section considers the im- porary encounters that tourists have with their environment plications of the findings for the future organization of city (Sacareau and Stock, 2003:21–32). Moreover, tourist prac- tourism. tices have the potential to change over time and to vary be- tween different types of travellers (Equipe´ MIT 2002, 2005). 2 Definitions, methodology and conceptual 2.2 From Bourdieu’s concept of “distinction” to tourist framework practices of differentiation 2.1 Tourism, repeat visitors and tourist practices The extensive work of Pierre Bourdieu is centered on the idea that social and cultural practices (re)produce difference The phenomenon of tourism implies mobility and circula- in the formation and preservation of class categories. This tion (Urry, 2000; Williams and Hall, 2002). According to the phenomenon was observed by Bourdieu and Passeron (1970) World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism can be de- in the context of educational institutions before it became a fined as a “set of activities engaged in by persons temporarily key element of a wider social analysis which can be read as a away from their usual environment, for a period of not more theory of taste and life style. In “La distinction” (Bourdieu, than one year, and for a broad range of leisure, business, re- 1979) the French sociologist suggests to consider practices ligious, health, and personal reasons, excluding the pursuit as socially constructed and situated ways of living. Bour- of remuneration from within the place visited or long-term dieu argues that practices are mainly motivated by the aim change of residence” (cit. in Smith, 2004:29). Due to the to identify with a specific social class and to differentiate be- additional UNWTO criterion that the visitors should spend tween one’s own and the others’ social class categories. His at least one night away from their home, the term tourism is empirical research shows that practice is a structured process usually not applied to day-trips. that can be observed in the manifold activities of everyday According to the wide range of possible travel purposes, life. Practices are understood and conceptualized as a way of several types of tourists can be distinguished. Moreover, the classifying individuals due to their relative positions within frequency of visits can be used to define tourist categories. a social space, which is structured by accumulating social, The term “repeat visitor” describes experienced tourists, who cultural and economic capital. Accordingly, even small dif- – in opposition to first time visitors – already made a pre- ferences in social and cultural practices can mean important vious visit to one and the same destination. However, the distinctions in terms of social class belonging. boundaries between these categories are blurred. We can ob- In the field of tourism consumption Bourdieu’s theoreti- serve hybrid forms of visitors when, for example, a business cal approach has been used to explain how class distinctions tourist uses part of the available time budget for leisure pur- are produced and reproduced through specific tourist prac- poses. Even the boundary between first time and repeat visi- tices (Britton, 1991). For example, historically aristocrats tors is not absolutely clear. As this paper will show, tourists moved from Brighton to the French Riviera when the con- who stay in Paris for a second or third time still have much struction of railroad lines made the British sea resorts ac- in common with first time visitors. Only if they stay more cessible for the middle and working classes (Buzard, 1993; frequently or for longer periods of time in the city, visitors Towner, 1996). As they did not wish to share these travel des- tend to show practices that can be regarded as typical for ex- tinations with lower social classes, aristocrats changed their perienced repeat visitors.