303 Kingdoms, Northern and Southern 304 of Samuel and Kings. In the past scholars from cultic centralization that Jerboam violated was not Wellhausen (1871) to McCarter (1980) found nu- instituted until the composition of Deuteronomy in merous instances where a corrupt or edited reading the late seventh century, some 300 years after Jero- of the HB could be emended with the LXX. More boam. Still, it provides the explanation for Israel’s recently, attention has been paid to the possibility fall in 722 BCE and for Judah’s survival until 586 of using the LXX, including its Latin witnesses, as BCE. A prophecy – fulfillment scheme further sup- documented evidence in literary and redaction criti- ports the etiology. The promise to David of an en- cal studies on Samuel-Kings (Trebolle; Schenker; during house (dynasty) explains Judah’s continua- Hugo). tion under Davidid rule despite Solomon’s apostasy (1 Kgs 14 : 29–39) and evil kings (1 Kgs 15 : 2–3; Bibliography: ■ Hugo, P., Les deux visages d’Élie (Fribourg/ Göttingen 2006). ■ McCarter, P. K., I Samuel (AB 8; New 2 Kgs 8 : 19). In contrast, the overthrow of each of York 1980). ■ McCarter, P. K., II Samuel (AB 9; New York Israel’s royal houses is foretold by prophets in ora- 1984). ■ Trebolle, J., Centena in libros Samuelis et Regum cles that use the same language to predict the (Madrid 1989). ■ Schenker, A., Älteste Textgeschichte der Kö- slaughter of the potential male heirs and their non- nigsbücher (Fribourg/Göttingen 2004). ■ Wellhausen, J., Der burial (1 Kgs 14 : 7–18; 16 : 1–4; 21 : 20–24; 2 Kgs Text der Bücher Samuelis untersucht (Göttingen 1871). 9 : 7–10). Tuukka Kauhanen The third main section dealing with the remain- See also /Kings (Books); /Samuel (Books and ing kings of Judah follows the order of their reigns: Person) Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Je- hoiakim, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah. The accounts for Hezekiah and Josiah are the longest, reflecting the Kingdoms, Northern and Southern author’s interest in their religious reforms. Second /Israel, People of; /Kingdoms of Israel and Ju- Kings ends with Jerusalem’s destruction and the ex- dah ile of Judah in 587/586 BCE followed by notices about Gedaliah’s brief tenure as governor and Je- hoiachin’s release from Babylonian prison in ca. Kings (Books) 562 BCE. I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament 2. Date and Composition. The book of Kings has II. New Testament been the main theater for debates on the date and III. Judaism composition of the Deuteronomistic History. Noth IV. Christianity dated the Dtr History to 562 BCE. European schol- V. Literature ars have tended to maintain this as the primary edi- VI. Visual Arts tion (DtrG[Grundschrift]) of Kings, while perceiv- VII. Music ing, with Smend, a series of subsequent Dtr layers VIII. Film focused on prophecy (DtrP) and law (DtrN). North Americans have generally followed Cross in posit- I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament ing an earlier, Josianic edition (Dtr1) – or an even 1. Content and Structure. A single work in two earlier Hezekian one – as predecessors of the exilic parts, 1–2 Kings has three sections: the reign of Sol- work (Dtr2). Some recent scholars have begun to omon (1 Kgs 1–11), the divided kingdom (1 Kgs 12– question the thesis of a Dtr History, arguing that 2 Kgs 17), and the kingdom of Judah alone after Is- its constituent books had independent origins. But rael’s fall (2 Kgs 18–25). Each section has its own a revised Dtr History theory yields a more cogent structure. Solomon’s reign is built around the picture (Römer). building and dedication of the temple (1 Kgs 5–8). Official archives and prophetic tales seem to be The division of the kingdom after Solomon is ex- the two main sources behind Kings. The regnal for- plained as punishment for serving other gods intro- mulas that provide the book’s structure refer to duced by his many foreign wives. “Book of the Annals of the Kings of Israel/Kings of For the divided kingdom, the account alternates Judah,” and annals are well attested for other an- between Israel and Judah with each king dated by cient Near Eastern kings. Still, no annals have been the regnal years of his counterpart in the other found for any king of Israel or Judah. Religious kingdom. The opening and closing regnal formulas evaluations in the regnal formulas would not derive for each king furnish a framework for any narrative from annals but are the work of the Dtr author of set during that king’s reign. The kings are evalu- Kings. Thus, while Dtr may well have used official ated religiously. The kings of Judah are all de- sources of some kind, their exact nature remains scended from David and judged by his standard; unclear. eight out of nineteen are righteous. The kings of The prophetic stories do not all appear at the Israel are all judged evil for perpetuating the “sin same level of writing. The antidynastic oracles are of Jeroboam” by maintaining the royal shrines that well integrated into the Dtr framework. Thus, in he established at Dan and Bethel. The principle of 1 Kgs 14 : 1–13, the answer to the inquiry of Jero- Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 15 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2017 Download Date | 12/4/18 2:03 AM 305 Kings (Books) 306 boam’s wife about her sick son is delayed by the was due to the failure to obey YHWH’s word in To- oracle against the dynasty, and in 2 Kgs 9 : 1–10, the rah and prophetic revelation. No explicit hope for prophet disobeys the order to flee after anointing the future is expressed. It is uncertain, but also Jehu in order to deliver the oracle against the royal open. The remnant of Israel can only hope that house. In both cases, Dtr used older prophetic sto- YHWH will act again on their behalf and learn from ries as the forum for his etiological oracle against the past not to fall again into apostasy. The post- the sitting dynasty. Most of the prophetic tales in Dtr prophetic legends focus on the man of god as Kings, though, are post-Dtr additions. This in- wonder worker independent of YHWH or with cludes the legends about Elijah, Elisha, and other YHWH’s power assumed. Elijah is a new Moses prophets in 1 Kgs 17–2 Kgs 13, except for Elijah’s (1 Kgs 19), and Elisha directs international politics. oracle in 1 Kgs 21 : 20–24* (Rofé; McKenzie: 81– Bibliography: ■ Cross, F. M., “The Structure of the Deuter- 100). onomic History,” in Perspectives in Jewish Learning (Annual of 3. History. Kings is our only ancient biblical source the College of Jewish Studies 3; Chicago, Ill. 1968) 9–24; for the history of Israel’s and Judah’s monarchy (the rev. “The Themes of the Book of Kings and the Structure author(s) of Chronicles used Kings and is therefore of the Deuteronomistic History,” in id., Canaanite Myth and not independent.) The etiological purpose of Kings Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cam- ■ and the place of prophets in it show that its interest bridge, Mass. 1973) 274–89. McKenzie, S. L., The Trouble with Kings: The Composition of the Books of Kings in the Deuteron- is primarily theological rather than historical. Thus, omistic History (VTSup 42; Leiden 1991). ■ Miller, J. M., despite Omri’s historical importance, shown in “The Omride Dynasty in the Light of Recent Literary and archaeological remains and extrabiblical sources Archaeological Research” (PhD diss., Emory University, where Israel is known as the “house of Omri,” 1964). ■ Noth, M., Überlieferungsgeschichtliche Studien (Darm- Kings devotes but a single, non-formulaic verse to stadt 31967); ET: id., The Deuteronomistic History (JSOTSup his reign (1 Kgs 16 : 24). The account of Ahab’s reign 15; Sheffield 1991). ■ Römer, T., The So-Called Deuteronomis- (1 Kgs 16 : 29–22 : 40) is much longer, but is mostly tic History (London 2005). ■ Rofé, A., The Prophetical Studies ■ about Elijah and Jezebel with little on the king’s (Jerusalem 1988). Shenkel, J. D., Chronology and Recen- sional Development in the Greek Text of Kings (HSM 1; Cam- accomplishments. Some of Kings’ historical data are bridge, Mass. 1968). ■ Smend, R., “Das Gesetz und die contradicted by other sources: (1) The battle stories Völker: Ein Beitrag zur deuteronomistischen Redaktions- in 1 Kgs 20; 22 depict Ahab as weak militarily and geschichte,” in Probleme Biblischer Theologie, FS G. v. Rad (ed. at war with Aram (Syria), while contemporary Assy- H. W. Wolff; Munich 1971) 494–509. ■ Trebolle Barrera, J., rian inscriptions portray him as a formidable ally of Centena in libros Samuelis et Regum: Variantes textuales y composi- Aram. In Kings, these two chapters are out of place ción literaria en los libros de Samuel y Reyes (Madrid 1989). and originally concerned a much later king. (2) In Steven L. McKenzie contrast to 2 Kgs 9, where Jehu assassinates the kings of both Israel and Judah, the Tel Dan inscrip- II. New Testament tion credits its author, probably King Hazael, with There are only two quotations from the books of those slayings. Did Hazael exaggerate for propa- Kings in the NT, both in Rom 11. Paul is seeking ganda effect or is Kings mistaken in its description to refute the idea that the inclusion of the Gentiles of Jehu’s religious zeal? (3) The account of Sen- implies that God has rejected his people. He begins nacherib’s invasion in 2 Kgs 18 differs from the As- by citing his own background as an “Israelite, a de- syrian version not only in outcome but also in hav- scendant of Abraham, a member of the tribe of Ben- ing Sennacherib invade twice.