A phytochemical analysis of some ancient narcotics, with comparative notes on some South African folk medical practices MARLENE VAN DEN BERG PhD (NWU) Mini dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PhD Latin In the School of Biblical Studies and Bible Languages at North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) Promotor: Prof. Dr. M.R. Dircksen Co-promotor: Prof. Dr. J. Scarborough POTCHEFSTROOM 2008 PREFACE Thank you: • I would like to give all honour and love to God who gave me the strength throughout this study to complete it in time. • My parents, for all their encouragement and their belief in me and my ability. They always supported me, were interested in what I did and helped me with anything for which I needed help. • W.L., my brother and personal assistant who had to run all my errands and helped me wherever he could. He did it (but at a price!). • Jimmy, my Yorkie, who was satisfied to lie on the table next to the computer every night (and still loves me...) • Prof. M.R. Dircksen, my supervisor who never lost courage, only wanted the best from me and led me to ideas that I could not have thought of. • Prof. J. Scarborough for all his trouble, coming to South Africa twice to supervise the study with so much patience and served me with large amounts of knowledge and insight. • Prof. S. van Dyk, who supervised the pharmacology in each chapter and the chapter on South African medicinal plants. • My friends, who did not get upset with me when I could not visit. They encouraged me, supported me and they are still my friends. • Mrs. S. van Biljon, who did the formatting of this thesis several times in a very professional way to deliver a tidy product. • Dr. M.E. Nelson, the language practitioner who did all the editing with so much care. • Personnel of the Ferdinand Postma, Theological and Science libraries, for all their help and support. • My colleagues at work, who understood when I did not focus every morning, because of a minimum amount of sleep the night before. • Frank Julyan for all his love and support. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1. STYLE All the Roman numbers are translated back to the Arabic style. This was done to make the end product easier to read, and in order to maintain a consistent style throughout. 2. TRANSLATIONS Throughout the study the following translations were used. It is mentioned after the translation if someone else's translation is used. Pliny, Historiae Naturalis: H. Rackham Volume 4 W.H.S Jones Volumes 5 - 8 Celsus, De medicina: W.G. Spencer Volumes 1 - 3 Dioscorides, De medica materia: L.Y. Beck Theophrastus, Historiae Plantarum: A. Hort De causis plantarum: B. Einarson and G.K.K. Link iii Introductory Notes 3. ANCIENT AND MODERN MEASUREMENTS AND DRY VOLUMES: Celsus gave a very neat description of weights and dosages and Spencer (1953:XV) also converted it into modern weights. Dry measures: LATIN QUANTITY TRANSLATION MODERN QUANTITY Libra, pondus Pound 336 g Bes librae Two thirds 224 g Selibra One half 168 g Triens librae One third 112 g Quadrans librae One quarter 84 g Sextans librae One sixth 56 g Sesquiuncia librae One eighth 42 g Uncia librae One twelfth 28 g Denarius, drachma One seventh of an uncia librae 4g Bes denarii Two-thirds 2.66 g Semi denarius One half 2g Quicunx denarii Five twelfths 1.66 g Triens denarii One third 1.33 g Quadrans denarii One quarter ig Sextans denarii One sixth 0.66 g Uncia denarii One twelfth 0.33 g Scripulum One twenty-fourth of an uncia librae 1.16g Obolus One sixth of a denarius 0.66 g Hemiobolium Half of an obolus 0.33 g iv Introductory Notes Liquid measures: LATIN QUANTITY TRANSLATION MODERN QUANTITY Amphora 30 1 Sextarius Half litre (500 ml_) Hernina sextarii Quarter of a litre (250 mL) Quadrans sextarii One eighth of a litre (125 mL) Acetabulum Eighth of a sextarius 63 mL Cyathus Twelfth of a sextarius 42 mL In the recipes of Celsus, he used several symbols, each meaning a specific quantity. Spencer (1953:XVI) also translated these as follows: ■ SYMBOL LATIN NAME LATIN QUANTITY P Pondus PS Se libra Half P- Uncia librae Twelfth of a pound Pbes Bes librae Two thirds P = = or PZ2 Triens librae One third P = - Quadrans librae One quarter P = or P Z Sextans librae One sixth * followed by a numeral or H or X One denarius or more P * - or P * - Uncia denarii One twelfth of a denarius P*S Semi-denarius One half P * = = or P * ZZ Triens denarii One third P* = _ Quadrans denarii One quarter P* = orP*Z Sextans denarii One sixth (one obolus) P* = = _ Quicunx denarii Five twelfths S followed by a numeral One sextarius S without any numeral Semi One half V Introductory Notes The Greeks also had their own weights and measure system. Beck (2002:xii) translates it as follows (after Berendes). Dry volumes: NAME WEIGHT Ceration 0.189 g Thermos 0.378 g Obol 0.568 g Dichalcon = 2/3 obol 0.379 g Cyamos Aigyptios 0.852 g Gramma 1.137g Triobolon 1.794 g Drachme 3.411 g Holce 3.411 g Caryon Ponticon 3.40 g Caryon basilikon 13.644 g Oungia 27.288 g Xestes 54.58 g Tetarton 81.86 g Litra 327.45 g Mna, Minai (pi.) 436.6 g Liquid measures: NAME VOLUME Cheme 0.01141 Cochlahon 0.012 1 Cyathos 0.0456 1 Mystron 0.068 1 Oxybaphon 0.0684 1 Tetarton 0.137 1 Cotyle 0.274 1 Xestes 0.547 1 Choinix 1.094 1 Chous 3.282 1 Ourna 13.1301 Amphoreus 26.260 1 Ceramion 26.260 1 Metretes 39.360 1 vi Introductory Notes In Turner's Daily drug use (2006:07), one can also find the modern dosages, weights and measures required to administer medication correctly to the patient. DOSAGE QUANTITY 1 drop 0.05 mL 1 teaspoon 5mL 1 dessertspoon 10 mL 1 tablespoon 15mL 1 wine glass 60 mL 1 tea cup 120 mL 1 tumbler 240 mL 1 c.cm 1 mL vii Introductory Notes ABSTRACT Ancient medicine is a fast-growing field of research at international level, but since successful research implies both medical (or pharmaceutical) knowledge and the ability to read Latin and Greek, only one classicist in South Africa has published on the topic in co-operation with a medical doctor. Although the professional and scholarly literature on ancient Greek and Roman medicine has proliferated in the last few decades, few studies have appeared that focus on narcotics and analgesics, their effects as observed and recorded by physicians, pharmacologists, and medical botanists, and an evaluation according to modern pharmacology or phytochemistry.1 The study is especially topical in the light of the modern-day search for herbal medicines and the renewed interest in South African ethnobotanical traditions (e.g. Afrikaner, Zulu, Swazi) as opposed to chemically prepared narcotics. Phytochemical properties of crude drugs have predictable physiological effects in the living human organism. Therefore, presuming that humans have not changed except incrementally in their physiological chemistry over the short span of two millennia, one can likewise document the effects of narcotics and analgesics in Graeco-Roman pharmacology, provided that the botanical sources and their manufactured forms are carefully identified. A secondary assumption is that ancient plants also carried phytochemical properties generally identical to modern ones, so that the descriptive nomenclatures of modern botany and phytochemistry reveal multiple pharmacological principles and their actions in ancient drugs, as well as their potentially undesirable side effects. One of the exceptions is the 1995 "The Opium Poppy in Hellenistic and Roman Medicine" by Prof. John Scarborough (in Roy Porter and Mikulas Teich, eds., Drugs and Narcotics in History [Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press]). viii Abstract /Abstrak OPSOMMING Antieke geneeskunde is 'n vinnig-groeiende navorsingsveld, veral op intemasionale vlak. Aangesien suksesvolle navorsing sowel mediese kennis as 'n kennis van klassieke tale vereis, is daar tans in Suid Afrika slegs een klassikus wat in samewerking met 'n mediese dokter sulke narvorsing doen en artikels skryf. Daar is heelwat akademiese literatuur op intemasionale vlak oor antieke Griekse en Romeinse geneeskunde, maar min studies bestaan wat fokus op narko- tiese middels en pynstillers; watter effekte dit op die liggaam het, soos dit deur dokters, farmakoloe en botanici aangeteken word; en 'n evaluering bied van die be- werings in die antieke geskrifte op grond van huidige fitochemiese en farmakologiese analises.2 Hierdie studie is veral gepas, gesien in die lig van moderne navorsing na kruie-medikasie en die hernude belangstell'mg in die Suid Afrikaanse etnobotaniese tradisies van bv. die Afrikaner, Zulu en Sotho, in teenstelling met chemies- geformuleerde narkotika. Fitochemiese eienskappe van onbewerkte geneesmiddels het voorspelbare fisiologiese effekte in die menslike liggaam. Dus, indien die aanname gemaak kan word dat mense nie veel verander het in die loop van twee millennia nie, kan die effekte van narkotika en analgetika in die Grieks-Romeinse farmakologie gedokumenteer word, indien die botaniese geneesmiddels en die verwerkte toe- dieningsvorms suksesvol geidentifiseer kan word, 'n Tweede aanname is dat die an­ tieke plante dieseifde fitochemiese eienskappe as hul moderne ewekniee het en dat die beskrywende nomenklatuur van moderne plantkunde en fitochemie, farma­ kologiese beginsels en eienskappe, sowel as die effekte en potensiele newe-effekte van die antieke plante kan beskryf. Een enkele uitsondering is die 1995 artikel van Prof. John Scarborough ("The Opium Poppy in Hellenistic and Roman Medicine" (in Roy Porter and Mikulas Teich, eds., Drugs and Narcotics in History [Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press]).