Exploring Gendered Dimensions of Ownership, Access and Use of Land-Based Resources in Post Crisis Swat, Pakistan Utforsking av kjønnede dimensjoner ved eierskap, tilgang til og bruk av landbaserte ressurser i Swat-dalen i Pakistan etter krisen Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) Thesis Abda Khalid Department of International Environment and Development Studies (NORAGRIC) Faculty of Social Sciences Norwegian University of Life Sciences Ås/2016 Thesis number: 2016:27 ISSN: 1894-6402 ISBN: 978-82-575-1327-6 Table of Contents Acknowledgment & Dedication …………………………………………………………………………………………. vi Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xii 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1. 1.1. Setting the background of the study ............................................................................................ 3. 1.2. Development programs and policies ............................................................................................ 7. 1.3. The Pakistan context .................................................................................................................... 8. 1.4. Research questions ..................................................................................................................... 11. 1.5. Organization of the thesis .......................................................................................................... 12. 2. Theoretical framework and its relevance to the research ......................................................... 13. 2.1. Human security ........................................................................................................................... 13. 2.1.1. Status of human security in Pakistan ....................................................................................... 17. 2.2. Approaches to gender and development ................................................................................... 19. 2.2.1. Gender realities and challenges in Pakistan ........................................................................... 24. 2.2.2. Gender structures and limitations in the Swat Valley .............................................................. 30. 2.3. Legal pluralism: The reality of conflated choices in Swat........................................................... 32. 2.4. Empowerment and power.......................................................................................................... 36. 2.5. Power in empowerment ............................................................................................................. 39. 2.6. Livelihoods in periods of crisis .................................................................................................... 44. 3. The study area ............................................................................................................................ 48. 3.1. Description of Swat .................................................................................................................... 48. 3.2. History of Swat ........................................................................................................................... 49. 3.3. Crises in Swat .............................................................................................................................. 49. 3.3.1. Religious dimensions................................................................................................................ 51. 3.3.2. Gender dimensions ................................................................................................................... 52. 3.4. Society and culture ..................................................................................................................... 55. 3.4.1. Pakhtoons and Pakhtoon wali .................................................................................................. 55. 3.5. Development in Swat: History to the present day ..................................................................... 57. 3.5.1. Pre-merger development era ................................................................................................... 57. 3.5.2. Post-merger development in Swat ............................................................................................ 58. 3.5.3. Development after crises .......................................................................................................... 59. 4. Research methodology ............................................................................................................... 60. ii 4.1. Research approach ..................................................................................................................... 60. 4.2. Study site and selection of participants ..................................................................................... 62. 4.3. Research instruments ................................................................................................................. 63. 4.2.1. Sampling .................................................................................................................................. 64. 4.2.2. Interviews with village men and women and village officials .................................................. 65. 4.2.3 Interviews with NGO officials .................................................................................................. 67. 4.2.3. Interviews with key informants and village heads ................................................................... 68. 4.2.4. Life history method................................................................................................................... 69. 4.2.5. Focus groups ............................................................................................................................ 70. 4.4. Challenges during fieldwork ....................................................................................................... 71. 5. Summary of papers .................................................................................................................... 73. 5.1. Paper I: Whose property, whose authority? Gendering the legal and customary practices in ownership and access to land: A case of Swat, Pakistan............................................................ 73. 5.2. Paper II: Bridging empowerment and land rights: Understanding gendered perceptions of women’s land rights in Swat, Pakistan ....................................................................................... 76. 5.3. Paper III: Assessing and analyzing the impacts of conflict and flood on livelihood activities and changing gender roles in selected villages in Swat, Pakistan ..................................................... 77. 5.4. Paper IV: Gender and development in Swat: Critical analysis of NGO approaches used in livelihood projects in selected villages in the Swat Valley ......................................................... 79. 6. Additional findings ...................................................................................................................... 82. 7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 86. 8. References .................................................................................................................................. 88. iii Part II- Compilation of Papers 1-4 1. Abda Khalid, Ingrid Nyborg, and Bahadar Nawab (2015), "Whose property whose authority? Gendering the legal and customary practices in ownership and access to land: A case of Swat, Pakistan". Journal of Rural Studies volume 41, Page 47-58. 2. Abda Khalid, Ingrid Nyborg, and Bahadar Nawab (in press) , “Bridging empowerment and land rights: Understanding Gendered perceptions of women’ land rights in Swat, Pakistan.”Journal of Rural Studies (manuscript number: RURAL-D-15-00372) 3. Abda Khalid, Bahadar Nawab and Ingrid Nyborg ,“Assessing and analysing the impacts of conflict and flood on livelihood activities and changing gender roles in selected villages in Swat, Pakistan. (Manuscript) 4. Abda Khalid (in press), “Gender and development in Swat: Critical analysis of NGO approaches used in gender-based livelihood projects in selected villages in the Swat Valley.” Forum For Development Studies (manuscript ID is SFDS-2015-0050) iv v Acknowledgements I am highly thankful to Allah Almighty for showering his unlimited blessings upon me and provided me an opportunity to seek my doctoral degree in the best of human knowledge. I am grateful to Department of International Environment and Development (Noragric) and Department of Development Studies, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad for providing the excellent seat of learning for the higher education. I am sincerely thankful to my main Advisor Dr. Ingrid Nyborg. It has been an honor to be her first female PhD Student from Pakistan. Knowingly and unknowingly, she taught me that nothing is impossible in this world. With her support and encouragement, I am able to complete my doctoral degree. I really appreciate all her contributions of time, ideas and opportunities in making this degree a worthwhile experience both professionally and in personal capacity. Lastly, Ingrid thank you for providing a true example of a successful woman academician and researcher. Your inspirations would stay with me forever. Equally importantly,