PhD Thesis: Creative Singapore, Paradoxes and Possibilities The Geographies of Cultural Activism in an Authoritarian City-State Jason Luger King’s College London/National University of Singapore Departments of Geography Submitted for Degree of: PhD, Geography (Arts) 1 Abstract Singapore faces a crossroads. Decades of top-down arts policies have given rise to a robust grassroots arts community, yet this cultural shift has also exposed tensions and contradictions. Indeed, Singapore’s ‘cultural turn’ has unleashed forces and tensions that may be uncontrollable, and may be shifting the City-State in new and uncharted directions. In the context of growing activism around the world, Singaporean ‘artivists’ seek alternative forms of place-making and creative expression, sometimes reifying, at other times challenging, the State and the status quo. Yet this artistic-activist community is far from being a united front. The State, likewise, is not a single, coherent entity, but is fluid and shifting, sometimes allied with, at other times opposed to, art- led activism. Space is a crucial lens in which to explore these tensions and contradictions. The findings of this thesis are summarised through a three-pronged taxonomy of cultural-activist spaces: indoor space, subdivided into theatres, galleries, cafés, and the spaces of the university; outdoor spaces, which range from State-designated spaces of activism to ‘pop up’ spaces of arts-led activism; and, finally, digital space, which spans social networks and the Singaporean ‘blogosphere’. Each spatial scale contains distinct possibilities and limitations on the effectiveness of, and the ability for, such activism to be transformative and influence policy shifts. These spaces are, of course, also often blurred. This thesis adds to the emerging conceptualisation about ‘cultural activism’, particularly in the context of the non-Western world, and thus broadens the ‘worlding’ of urban theory. Questions are raised about assumptions around concepts such as authoritarianism and the arts, which, in Singapore, are revealed to be complex and highly fluid. This thesis can also inform policy-makers in terms of practical application, as the decades of arts and culture policy in Singapore can now be understood to have produced a multitude of tangible, measureable results (some of which were intended, while others were not.) 2 Acknowledgments I am grateful to King’s College London Graduate School for providing me with funding for this project and for the unique institutional agreement between King’s and the National University of Singapore that gave birth to this study. This thesis would not have been possible without the support of Professor Loretta Lees, my first supervisor at King’s College London (though she is now at the University of Leicester), who first recognised the paradoxes and possibilities of this project, provided support and creativity, and, at times, a swift kick in the behind. Singapore-based supervisors and mentors, Professors Pow Choon-Piew and T.C. Chang, were vital to the completion of this project, both on the ground and as gateways to field research in the City-State. Thanks also to Dr. Alex Loftus, my second supervisor at King’s College London, who cheerfully provided another set of eyes and ears and moral support. There are too many contacts and friends in Singapore to thank individually, but needless to say it took a village to support my research – to lend me precious time to answer my questions, provoke me, allow me to provoke, and invite me into the hidden spaces of their beautiful tropical island. Their help has been invaluable, and I retain lasting friendships and connections with several of those I came to know during my research. There are certain people in Singapore that may not grace the pages of this thesis but will always remain with me as remarkable features of my time there, who helped to graciously welcome me: Sebri, at the ‘Backstage Bar’; the servers at my favourite Hawker Centres; and the taxi drivers, who took me home on humid evenings and shared their thoughts and opinions, often unsolicited. Thank you. Thanks also to the Geography Department at the National University of Singapore, in particular to Professors Lily Kong, Tim Bunnell, Jamie Gillen, and Elaine Ho, for providing unsolicited (and solicited) feedback, insights, and suggestions. The Social and Cultural Geographies (SCG) reading group was a wonderful forum to discuss my, and others’, work. Thanks to fellow geographer Dr. Jenny Lloyd for accompanying me on some occasions to my field-research sites, and on (hot) walks in the forest. Warm thanks to my PhD-student colleagues at King’s College London 3 and NUS who have been there to provide intellectual support, friendly critique, and sometimes just a pint down the pub, as well as the crucial opportunity to discuss things beyond academia. Finally, (not least), thank you to my friends, loved ones (Dan), and family (mom and dad) for supporting me at those dead-ends and helping to break down any blocks I encountered, real or imagined. Your patience and love have largely propelled this work and you have provided inspiration. And lastly, thank you to those who fight every day, small and often frustrating battles for just causes, who work thanklessly and tirelessly for the advancement of creative freedom, free expression, and social and spatial justice in Singapore and anywhere such battles take place. 4 Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................... 9 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 12 1.1 Happy Birthday, Singapore; Farewell Mr. Lee ........................................ 12 1.2 Hazy Activism; Opaque State ................................................................. 15 1.3 Exposing the Geographies of Cultural Activism in Singapore: Thesis Aims, Approach, and Structure .................................................................................... 17 1.4 Thesis Structure and Outline .................................................................. 19 2. Theorising Cultural Singapore .................................................................. 21 2.1 Singapore in a ‘World of Cities’: To What Do We Compare? ....................... 21 2.1.1 Framing ‘The Asian City’ ........................................................................ 23 2.2 Theorising ‘the State:’ Relationality, Scale, and Governmentality ............... 30 2.2.1 The Strategic-Relational State ............................................................... 32 2.2.2 Governmentality / Governable Space ................................................... 33 2.2.3 Framing the ‘Authoritarian City / State’, with Regard to Singapore ..... 34 2.3 Theorising – and Rethinking – Urban Space ................................................. 39 2.3.1 The Production of Space........................................................................ 39 2.3.2 ‘Space’ vs’ ‘Place’: The Immaterial vs Material City .............................. 42 2.3.3 Reconceptualising Public Space: The Material City Square vs The Digital Agora .............................................................................................................. 45 2.4 Theorising Urban Activism and Resistance ................................................... 50 2.4.1 The Literature on Traditional Urban Activism: Still Valid? .................... 50 2.4.2 The New(?) Geographies of Resistance and Activism ........................... 53 2.4.3 Theorising Digital Activism .................................................................... 59 2.5 Making – and Critiquing – the Cultural City ................................................. 64 2.5.1 The ‘Cultural City’ Becomes a Global Policy .......................................... 64 2.5.2 Making Cultural Cities in Asia: The Arts within Authoritarian Confines 71 2.6. Art-Led Activism / Cultural Activism / ‘Artivism’ ......................................... 76 2.6.1 Art, Activism, and Authoritarianism ...................................................... 78 2.6.2 Art, Activism, and the Asian City ........................................................... 80 2.7 Summary: Key Contributions to Theory and Overall Thesis Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 85 2.7.1 Main Research Questions ...................................................................... 86 5 3. Doing Research in an Authoritarian City State: Ethical Considerations, Positionality, and Reflexivity .......................................................................... 88 3.1 Reflexivity and Positionality ................................................................... 88 3.1.1 Being an ‘Insider’/‘Outsider’.................................................................. 88 3.1.2 Who Am I? Where Do I Come From? How Do I View the World? .......... 89 3.2 The Ethical Challenges - and Considerations - Of Doing Research in Authoritarian Singapore ..................................................................................... 92 3.2.1 Approaching ‘Authoritarianism’ ............................................................ 92 3.2.2 Protecting Informants and Participants ................................................ 95 4. Thesis Research Methods ........................................................................ 99 4.1 Overview ................................................................................................