FIXING THE GAP: an investigation into wheelchair users’ shaping of London public transport Raquel Velho UCL Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2017 "1 I, Raquel Velho, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Date: Signature: "2 For my father, Paulo. "3 Abstract Public transport in London is a massive infrastructure, with over 400km of underground tracks, a fleet of 8000 buses and a rich, 153-year history that has turned it into a symbol of the English capital. Despite its size, accessibility in this infrastructure has been a source of concern for wheelchair users in London. Based on interpretative analysis of thirty-four in-depth qualitative interviews with wheelchair users and policy-makers, observations of training courses and documentary data on London transport, this research asks, “How do wheelchair users use public transport in London?” This thesis, which sits at the intersection of science and technology studies (STS) and disability studies, has two main arguments. The first contends that the barriers faced by wheelchair users in transport are the result of infrastructural stabilisation that occurred in a period of social segregation (1850s-1950s). This is discussed by intersecting the history of transport in London, with that of disabled people in British society, followed by interviewees’ accounts of the barriers they encounter in the infrastructure to this day. The second argument holds that, despite segregation, wheelchair users have taken an active role in the process of shaping transport in London. In this role, they have developed inclusion mechanisms on both micro- and macro-scales, through individual problem-solving on the one hand and collective and political activism on the other. Drawing from STS concepts like the social shaping of technology and infrastructural invisibility, and engaging with the social model of disability from disability studies, this thesis shows the impact of marginalised users’ engagement. It concludes that the social perception of disabled users as ‘passive’ masks an active interaction with and shaping of the transport network. This thesis therefore provides insights into the paradoxical nature of infrastructure, showing places of agency where previously one saw passivity and exclusion.! "4 Acknowledgements It is broadly accepted that a doctoral thesis is anything but individual work (reference pending). A broad international sociotechnical system was gradually set up in order for this work to reach its climax including, but not limited to, the internet, two computers, five phones, insurance companies, airplanes, two apartments, funding agencies, and a significant collective of human beings of a large variety. These acknowledgements hope to do the latter justice, thanking them for their roles in this project. First and foremost, to the numerous collaborators I have had in the shape of interviewees, I cannot thank you enough for trusting me with your stories and experiences. It was a pleasure to have met each of you, and I am grateful for the time you dedicated to speak with me. To my primary supervisor, Brian Balmer, for his guidance and support through each step of the process. Thank you to my secondary supervisor, Catherine Holloway, whose holistic view of the project ensured that I kept it legible. To both, thank you for responding to panic-filled emails about deadlines, readjustment of said deadlines, and your words of advice. To the many charities that spread the word about my research, and found it worth sharing with their followers and members, thank you for your help in recruiting. Particular thanks are due to Leonard Cheshire, the Stroke Association, Scope, Disability Rights UK, and Transport for All. Many thanks to the Brazilian CAPES Foundation, Science Without Borders Program, whose financial support allowed this work to happen. The UCL Department of Science and Technology Studies is bursting at the seams with people to thank. To Chiara Ambrosio, our beloved postgraduate tutor, for pulling me back from the ledge in times of trouble. To Jack Stilgoe, for the opportunity to grow as a teacher during the doctoral experience. To Phyllis Illari, Simon Werrett, Joe Cain, and other faculty members for making the department such a nurturing environment for young researchers. To Lori Coletti Campbell and the wonderful administrative staff who helped me navigate the bureaucratic world. And, of course, the doctoral community, who deserve a paragraph of their own. "5 To Erman Sozudogru, my brother during this experience and beyond, for his constant companionship. The home we created over these years was filled with lively debates, Netflix marathons, and plants. I will miss it dearly. Elizabeth Jones, Oliver Marsh, Sadie Harrison, Melanie Smallman, Katherine Jane Cecil, Julia Sanchez-Dorado, Toby Friend, Tom O’Donnell, Sara Peres, Edd Bankes, thank you for morning coffees, evening drinks and everything in between. To the whole community that grew too large to fit in a single office (or to mention in a single acknowledgement), thank you for the inspiration. To my friends from beyond the STS academic realm, for reminding me other worlds exist: at the climbing wall with Jack Neenan and Becca Lipman, in the cafés with Priscila Carvalho and Thea Stallwood. Special thanks to Tash Cutts, whose positivity has been a light in dark times and with whom I have shared so many important moments of my London life. To my brothers, Homero and Tiago, who each offered me support in their own way. Homero in providing healthy competition and constant banter (I still beat you to the end of the thesis). Tiago in motivating me to “just sit down and get it done”. To my father, who years ago emailed me in the middle of the night to offer some advice: “If you’re ever stuck in a lift, keep calm and sing your favourite songs, which are many. But keep calm. In the lift as in any other stressful situation.” It was sound advice; I extend it to everyone else. Throughout my doctoral experience, I expanded my number of favourite songs, but often went back to the Beatles and thought of my father. Lastly, to my mother, where words fail me. For the obvious intellectual help she has given me, working as an honorary supervisor with none of the glory (if there ever is any). Thank you for being my travelling companion when we both needed to escape. You are, without a doubt, the most inspiring woman I have ever met, and your strength continues to astound me.! "6 Contents Abstract______________________________________ 4 Acknowledgements_____________________________ 5 Chapter 1: Introduction_________________________ 14 Chapter 2: Investigating marginalised users of stabilised infrastructures_______________________ 19 1. The social construction of stabilised systems____________ 19 A. Sociotechnical systems and networks____________________ 19 B. Consolidation through convention_______________________ 23 C. Invisible infrastructures_______________________________ 26 D. How ‘excluded’ users matter___________________________ 29 2. On exclusion and subversion: from social theory to STS____ 32 A. Deviance and stigma_________________________________ 33 B. Biopower and resistance______________________________ 35 C. Lay knowledge and social activism______________________ 38 3. Building (sturdier, more accessible) bridges _____________43 A. Disability models, studies, methods______________________ 43 B. Enriching the STS/disability studies overlap_______________ 48 4. Conclusion_______________________________________ 49 Chapter 3: Whose voices are heard? _____________51 1. Methodological inspiration and political openness_________ 51 2. Methods_________________________________________ 54 A. Interviews________________________________________ 54 I. Recruitment__________________________________________ 55 II. Interview process______________________________________ 57 B. Observations _____________________________________60 C. Documentary collection_____________________________ 61 3. Analysis_________________________________________ 63 Chapter 4: “[I]t is a Victorian network and obviously, back then, people with disabilities weren’t really considered important.”_________________________ 66 1. A (summarised) history of public transport in London______ 67 A. The early days of passenger transport in London (1830s-1880s)_ 67 B. The subterranean boom (1890s-1900s)___________________ 72 C. Management changes (1910s-1920s)____________________ 75 "7 D. A time for unification (1920s-1930s)______________________ 77 E. Under new, new, new management (1940s-1990s)__________ 79 F. Enter Transport for London, and the future (2000s-today)_____ 82 2. A brief history of the place of disabled people in society____ 84 A. The pre-industrial era_________________________________ 84 B. The industrial era____________________________________ 86 C. Post-war and today__________________________________ 89 3. Centuries of erasure: intersecting the history of transport and the history of disability______________________________ 92 Chapter 5: “Are we talking about the physical barriers to accessible transport? Are we talking about attitudinal barriers?”___________________________ 97 1. A broad recognition of the improvements that have been made _ 98 A. The Olympic and Paralympic Games and onwards_________ 98 B. The renovation efforts – rolling stock and new buses_______ 100 2. Physical barriers__________________________________