RELIGION AND THE ARTS Series Editor: John Hinnells, University of Derby The arts have always been one of the primary means of communicating religious traditions; indeed, visual or performing arts may complement, predate or supplant many scriptural sources. This series explores how the visible has been used to express the invisible, and is designed to provide an understanding of the world's religions through the various art forms associated with religious practice and experience. Already published Art and Religion in Africa by Rosalind I. J. Hackett Arts in the Religions of the Pacific by Albert C. Moore Ganesa, Orissa, thirteenth century. Hinduism and the Religious Arts Heather Elgood CASSELL London and New York Cassell Wellington House, 125 Strand, London WC2R OBB 370 Lexington Avenue, New York, NY 10017-6550 First published 1999 First published in paperback 2000 © Heather Elgood 1999 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-304-70739-2 (paperback) ISBN 0-304-33820-6 (hardback) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Elgood, Heather, 1950- Hinduism and the religious arts / Heather Elgood. p. cm.—(Religion and the arts) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-304-33820-6 (hardcover) 1. Art, Hindu—India. 2. Art, Indie-India. 3. Hindu symbolism. 4. Art patronage-India. 5. Art and religion-India. I. Title. II. Series: Religion and the arts series. N7301.E38 1998 294.5'37-dc21 98-24595 C1P Designed and typeset by Ben Cracknell Studios Printed and bound in Great Britain by Redwood Books Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire Contents List of Illustrations vi Acknowledgements viii CHAPTER i Introduction 1 CHAPTER 2 Sacred Imagery 13 CHAPTER 3 Hindu Deities 44 CHAPTER 4 Hindu Sacred Architecture 93 CHAPTER 5 Royal Patronage of the Religious Arts and Its Historical Development and Objectives 135 CHAPTER 6 Village and Tribal Patrons and Their Religious Arts 187 CHAPTER? Conclusion 227 Glossary 232 Bibliography 237 Index 241 List of Illustrations Frontispiece Ganesa, Orissa, thirteenth century CHAPTERS Figure 3.1 Siva Lingodbhava, South India. Chola, COLOUR PLATES 900 Plate 1 Modern painting of Siva. Figure 3.2 Trident in a secondary shrine, in Plate 2 Narasimha, Basohli, c. 1700. a temple at Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu Plate 3 Krishna offered milk by the gopis, Figure 3.3 Siva Nataraj, Tamil Nadu. Chola, 1100 Basohli 1740. Figure 3.4 Dakshinamurti Siva from Kailasanatha Plate 4 Sculpture of Durga in worship, shrine at temple. Kanchipuram, early eighth century Gingee, Tamil Nadu. Figure 3.5 Vishnu, Kanauj, Central India. Late Plate 5 Priest of Adivaraha temple, Mamallapuram, tenth century mid-seventh century. Figure 3.6 An original drawing of Vishnu Plate 6 Goddess Mariyamman, Tamil Nadu. Figure 3.7 A modern painting of the baby Krishna Plate 7 Aiyanar shrine, Tamil Nadu. Figure 3.8 A modern painting of the goddess Plate 8 Wall painting, Orissa. Lakshmi CHAPTER 1 Figure 3.9 Village shrine in Tamil Nadu Figure 1.1 Cauri bearer, commonly known as the Figure 3.10 A modern painting of Kali Didarganj yakshi, third-second century BC Figure 3.11 Terracotta female figurine, Indus Valley. 2600-1500 BC CHAPTER 2 Figure 3.12 A seal from Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan. Figure 2.1 A stone linga, Indus Valley. Harappan Harappan period, 2300-1750 BC period, c. 2300-1750 BC Figure 3.13 Naga kals shrine, Tamil Nadu Figure 2.2 Yantra Figure 3.14 Nandi, temple in Tamil Nadu Figure 2.3 Seal showing a horned cross-legged Figure 3.15 Cow carving in a cave temple, figure, Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan. Harappan Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu. AD 700-800 period, c. 2300-1750 BC Figure 2.4 Male figure (possibly a yaksha) from CHAPTER 4 Parkham, Uttar Pradesh. Sunga second-first Figure 4.1 The elements of a temple century BC Figure 4.2 Drawing of Kirtimukha Figure 2.5 Sacred tree hung with cradles. Figure 4.3 Mithuna, Visvanatha temple, Khajuraho. Tamil Nadu Chandella dynasty, eleventh century Figure 2.6 Linga from Gudimallam, Andhra Figure 4.4 Mithuna. Lakshmana temple, Pradesh, c. First century BC Khajuraho. Chandella dynasty, tenth century Figure 2.7 Hand gestures: the mukula mudra Figure 4.5 Surasundari figures, Lakshmana temple, (closed lotus), padmakosha mudra and the Khajuraho, Chandella dynasty, tenth century alapadma (open lotus) Figure 4.6 Radial plan of images Figure 2.8 Nageswara temple, Tamil Nadu. Figure 4.7 Drawing of Makara Kumbhakonam, 886 Figure 4.8 Purna Kumbha - a pot overflowing Figure 2.9 Vyala with flowers and plants List of Illustrations Figure 4.9 The characteristic features of northern CHAPTER 6 (right) and southern (left) temples Figure 6.1 'Seven sisters' at a village shrine in Figure 4.10 Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Tamil Nadu Khajuraho. Eleventh century Figure 6.2 A village shrine with tridents and Figure 4.11 Muvarkovil temple, Kodumbalore. spears, Tamil Nadu Early Chola, ninth century Figure 6.3 Sacred termite mound, Tamil Nadu Figure 6.4 A priest of Aiyanar shrine, Tamil Nadu CHAPTERS Figure 6.5 A crudely made terracotta Aiyanar and Figure 5.1 Narasimha Mamalla I, Patron of the his two consorts. Rural shrine, Tamil Nadu Adivaraha temple, Mamallapuram. Pallava Figure 6.6 Women decorating pots, Jhun Jhunu dynasty, mid-seventh century district, Rajasthan Figure 5.2 Trimurti temple, Mamallapuram. Pallava Figure 6.7 Kolam. Tamil Nadu dynasty, early eighth century Figure 6.8 Brahman celebrating Pongal, Nepattur Figure 5.3 Portrait of Narasimha Mamalla I, on the village, Tamil Nadu Dharmaraja Ratha, Mamallapuram. Pallava Figure 6.9 An image of Lajja Gauri dynasty, early eighth century Figure 6.10 Terracotta horses offered to Aiyanar Figure 5.4 Princess on Nagesvara temple, Figure 6.11 Women at a tree shrine Kumbhakonam. Early Chola, AD 886 Figure 5.5 Portrait of Rajendra Cola, CHAPTER 7 Brihadishvara temple, Gangikondacholapuram, Figure 7.1 Brahmans at Srirangam Tamil Nadu. Mid-eleventh century Figure 5.6 Lion tank, Gangikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu. Mid-eleventh century Figure 5.7 Carving of a figure offering his own head, Varaha cave, Mamallapuram, Late seventh century Figure 5.8 Gajalakshmi, Varaha cave, Mamallapuram, Late seventh century vn Acknowledgements This book is conceived as part of a series and Alix Lawrence for her help and en- inspired by Professor John Hinnells couragement My own original contribution (formerly at the School of Oriental and to my writing has been inspired over many African Studies, University of London and years by working alongside and by listening now at the University of Derby) and to many of my friends who have given me originally under the aegis of Pinter encouragement and advice. Of these I Publishers. I am grateful to Professor would like to mention, in particular, Dr Hinnells personally for his support and Anna Dallapiccola, Robert Skelton, Dr encouragement and more generally for George Michell, Dr Stephen Huyler, Dr initiating a project which is so close to my Vivek Nanda, Dr Michael Willis, Dr Angela own interest in an area where art, religion Hobart, Richard Blurton, Dr Giles Tillotsin, and anthropology meet. In the research for Dr Linda Leach, Alastair Shearer, Rosemary this text I have drawn on the ideas of many Crill, Dr Don Stadtner, Dr Adam Hardy, scholars from these disciplines and have John Burton Page, Vena Gheerawo, Stella attempted to form these into a seamless Marsden, Dr Julia Leslie, Professor whole. For this research I am grateful to Piatigorsky and Dr Rashmi Poddar. I would SOAS whose library resource was a vital also like to thank my many students from component. the Asian Arts Programme, who are Amongst those who helped me to write responsible for inspiring some of my ideas this book I would like to give special mention and who have read selected chapters of the to Dr John Marr, not only for suggesting manuscript. I would also like to thank staff that I should work on this series but for and students of the Bharat Vidya Bhavan being a constant source of encouragement, for so often providing me with insight into support and inspiration over many years. I the practical demonstration of the visual am also profoundly grateful to him for a arts, and the Director Nanda Kumar, and critical reading of the text prior to Dr Shastri. I would also like to thank Janet publication. For a valued contribution, Joyce as Director of CasselPs Academic welcome criticism and support in the Division who showed understanding, reading of the chapters at an early stage I patience and gave much needed encourage- would also like to thank Dr Stephen Huyler. ment and enthusiasm. With regard to the In the final editing I would like to thank illustrations I would like to thank Pat Veronica Brinton for her patience and time, Barylski, Madhuvanti Chose, Naman Ahuja, Acknowledgements Robert Skelton, John Marr and Stephen selected during a field trip to India in 1997. Huyler who were kind enough to lend me I would also like to thank Chris Glanville some of their slides. I would also like to for his line drawings. thank Debbie Swallow at the Victoria and This book is dedicated to my husband Albert Museum and Michael Willis at the and family. My husband showed unfailing British Museum for their kindness in patience and encouragement in helping allowing me to use some of the photographs with the editing of this book; without him in the collection.