MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu ��2.626 Fundamentals of Photovoltaics Fall 2008 For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms. PV4EV: An assessment of photovoltaic energy to meet personal transportation demand December 4, 2008 Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................6 Project Summary.......................................................................................................................................6 Personal Transportation and Electric Vehicles .............................................................................................7 Daily Vehicle Use.......................................................................................................................................7 Electric Vehicles ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Integrated PV-EV.......................................................................................................................................9 Solar EV Energy Flow.............................................................................................................................9 Range of the Aptera Typ1-e Solar EV..................................................................................................10 PV for Electric Vehicles ...............................................................................................................................11 PV Charging Stations...............................................................................................................................11 Station Design and Energy Flows........................................................................................................11 Station Components ...........................................................................................................................13 PV Charging Station Assessment ............................................................................................................13 Station Inputs and Assumptions .........................................................................................................13 Station Results ........................................................................................................................................15 PV integrated EV’s...................................................................................................................................16 Life Cycle Analysis .......................................................................................................................................18 LCA Boundary and Assumptions .............................................................................................................18 LCA Results.............................................................................................................................................. 18 Integrated PV Vehicle Cost Estimate ......................................................................................................21 Retrofits to Existing Hybrid and Electric Vehicles ...................................................................................21 Conclusions and Discussion ........................................................................................................................23 The role of PV in Personal Transportation..............................................................................................23 Discussion....................................................................................................................................................23 Charging Station Deployment and Implementation Strategies..............................................................23 Stakeholder Perspectives........................................................................................................................24 Reducing Capital Cost to Consumers ......................................................................................................26 References ..................................................................................................................................................27 Appendices..................................................................................................................................................30 Appendix A : Study Locations..............................................................................................................31 Appendix B : Traditional EV Power and Energy Requirements...........................................................32 Appendix C : Solar EV Power and Energy Requirements ....................................................................34 Appendix D : Practical Issues for Solar EVs .........................................................................................38 Appendix E : PV Charging Station Components..................................................................................39 Appendix F : Energy Storage Options..................................................................................................41 Appendix G : Life-Cycle Analysis Assumptions and Boundaries..........................................................44 Appendix H : California and New England Electricity Grids ................................................................45 Appendix I : Lifetime Electric Vehicle Battery Costs ...........................................................................47 Appendix J : Solar and EV Incentives...................................................................................................48 Appendix K : LCA Input values and calculations..................................................................................50 Tables Table 1: Vehicle energy consumption and miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent energy (MPGe) over the LA92 drive cycle......................................................................................................................................9 Table 2: Aptera Typ1-e Vehicle Specifications, vs. Toyota Prius for comparison. These calculations are described in much more detail in Appendix C............................................................................................10 Table 3: Components used in each PV charging station scenario .............................................................13 Table 4: PV Charging Station Inputs............................................................................................................14 Table 5: Charging Station Efficiency............................................................................................................15 Table 6: Charging Station Energy Cost........................................................................................................15 Table 7: Total Costs for 15 vehicle PV charging station located in Boston and LA.....................................15 Table 4: Average Energy Available (kWh) and Vehicle Range for Different Array Configurations.............17 Table 9: LCA Comparison Results Summary...............................................................................................19 Table 10: Cost Estimates for Integrated PV Vehicles. The cost of the vehicle is more than tripled in the case of the GaAs solar.................................................................................................................................21 Table 11: Average Energy Available (kWh) and Vehicle Range for Different Array Configurations...........22 Table 12: Cost Estimates for Retrofits to Existing Electric Vehicles............................................................22 Table 13: Summary of key stakeholder Perspectives .................................................................................25 Table A-1: Assessment of states for location of EV charging station [14][15][33]. ....................................31 Table B-1: Vehicle descriptions and energy consumptions of the the LA92 drive cycle ............................32 Table B-2: Electric Vehicle (150 mile range mid-size EV) Energy Flows during standard driving...............33 Table B-3: Conventional vehicle (midsize ICE vehicle) Energy Flows during Standard Driving ..................33 Table C-1: Component Efficiencies [31]......................................................................................................34 Table C-2: Characteristics of Solar Cells......................................................................................................37 Table F-1: Energy Storage Acronym Definition...........................................................................................42 Table F-2: Advantages and disadvantages of various storage technologies ..............................................42 Table H-1: Average CO2 and Net equivalent CO2 emissions rates for the California, Massachusetts, and U.S. average electricity grids [17] [38]........................................................................................................45 Table I-1: Lifetime battery costs for electric vehicles using Li-ion battery technology ..............................47 Figures Figure 1: Percentage of U.S. drivers who drive a given distance per day for two groups: all U.S. drivers and only those who drive less