A SUMMARY OF CATHOLIC HISTORY By Newman C. Eberhardt, G.M. VOLUME II MODERN HISTORY B. HERDER BOOK CO. 15 & 17 South Broadway, St. Louis 2, Mo. AND 2/3 Doughty Mews, London, W.C.1 IMPRIMI POTEST JAMES W. STAKELUM, C.M., PROVINCIAL IMPRIMATUR: ►j4 JOSEPH CARDINAL RITTER ARCHBISHOP OF ST. LOUIS-OCT. 16, 1961 © 1962 BY B. HERDER BOOK CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 61-8059 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY VAIL-BALLOU PRESS, INC., BINGHAMTON, N.Y. Contents PART I: THE CHURCH IN THE HUMANIST WORLD Section I: Secular Humanism (1453-1776) I. THE RENAISSANCE (1447-1517) . 4 1. The Secular Renaissance .. • 4 2. The Ecclesiastical Renaissance .. • 11 3. The Renaissance Papacy (1447-84) . 17 4. The Evil Stewards (1484-1503) . 23 5. The Militant and Humanist Papacy (1503-21) . 30 6. Germanic Renaissance (1378-1519) . 36 7. Slavic Renaissance (1308-1526) . 42 8. French Renaissance (1380-1515) . 47 9. British Renaissance (1377-1509) . 53 10. Iberian Unification (1284-1516) 59 11. Scandinavian Unity (1319-1513) . 65 II. EXPLORATION AND EVANGELIZATION (1492-1776) 71 12. The Turkish Menace (1481-1683) .. 71 13. Levantine Missions 74 14. Return to the Old World ..... 80 15. Discovery of a New World (1000-1550) • 87 16. Latin America (1550-4800) ... 93 17. French America (1603-1774) ... • 104 18. Anglo-Saxon America (1607-1776) . 114 Section II: Theological Humanism (1517-1648) III. THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION (1517-59) . 124 19. Causes of Protestantism 124 20. Emperor Charles of Europe (1519-58) . 132 21. Luther and Lutheranism ... 138 v] [vi Contents] 22. German Lutheran Revolt (1517-21) . 146 23. German Lutheran Establishment (1521-55) 152 24. Scandinavian Lutheranism (1513-1648) 158 25. Calvin and Calvinism ..... 165 26. Swiss Puritanism (1519-64) ... 171 27. French Huguenots (1515-59) .. 176 28. English Alienation (1509-34) .. 181 29. English Schism (1529-47) ... 188 30. English Heresy (1547-59) ... 195 31. Scottish Presbyterianism (1513-1603) 201 IV. THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION (1521-85) . 208 32. The Papal Reform (1521-85) ... 208 33. Tridentine Reform .... 214 34. Clerical Tridentine Execution 222 35. Religious Reform 22.81 36. Theological Revival . 23 37. Liturgical Renaissance 241 V. THE WARS FOR RELIGION (1559-1648 . 241 38. The Papacy and Counter Reformation (1585-1655) . 246 33 39. The Empire and Counter Reformation (1555-1648) . 252 40. Spanish Crusading (1516-1659) . .. 257 41. French Huguenot Wars (1559-1659) 262 42. British Religious Strife (1558-1660) 268 43. Slavic Catholic Survival (1506-1699) . 275 Section III: Rationalist Humanism (1638-1789) VI. THEOLOGICAL SUBJECTIVISM (1638-1715) . 2821 44. The "Enlightenment" . ...... 282 45. The Age of Louis XIV (1660-4715) . 28j 46. The Papacy and Gallicanism (1655-1721) . 2941 47. Galilean France (1615-1715) .. 299 48. Jansenist Origins (1638-43) ... 304 49. Jansenist Tergiversation (1643-69) . 309 50. Quietist Reaction (1675-99) ... 315 51. Jansenist Revival (1695-1729) ..... 321 52. Catholic Moral Synthesis ..........326 53. Sectarian Pietism 330 VII. THE CULT OF RATIONALISM ( 1715-89 ) . 336 54. The Old Regime in Europe (1715-89) . 336 55. Rationalist Doctrinaires: the Philosophers . 342 56. Rationalist Champions: the Freemasons . 347 [Contents vii] 57. The Papacy and Rationalism (1721-99) . 353 58. Papal Champions: Jesuit Suppression . 358 59. The Old Regime in France (1715-89) . 3 60. Secularist Germany (1648-1790) . 369 61. Weakening of the Catholic East (1668-1795) . 375 62. Iberian Decline (1659-1808) ..... 380 63. British Catholic Vicissitudes (1660-1778) . 385 PART II: THE CHURCH IN AN AGNOSTIC WORLD Section I: Liberal Agnosticism (1789-1870) VIII. LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS (1776-1815). 396 64. Nature of Liberalism 396 65. Economic Revolutions 403 66. British Catholic Emancipation (1778-1829) 408 67. American Secular Revolution (1776-1815) . • 415 68. American Ecclesiastical Origins (1774-1815) 423 69. French Constitutional Revolution (1789-92) 432 70. French Violent Revolution (1792-99) . 440 71. French Napoleonic Revolution (1799-1804) 448 72. Napoleonic Imperialism (1804-15) ... 455 IX. AUTHORITARIAN REACTION ( 1815-48 ) . 462 73. The Metternich Era 462 74. Capetian Finale (1814-48) ...... 469 75. Teutonic Transformation (1801-48) . 475 76. The Papacy and Italian Liberalism (1815-46) . 482 77. Russian Autocracy (1796-1855) . 489 78. British Catholic Revival (1829-65) . 495 79. American Growth (1815-52) .. 505 X. CONSUMMATION OF NATIONALISM ( 1848-71 ) 518 80. Nationalism and Imperialism ... ... 518 81. The Papacy and Italian Nationalism (1846-78) . 524 82. First Vatican Council (1869-70) . 534 83. French Neo-Bonapartism (1848-70) . 543 84. German Unification (1848-71) .. 549 85. Iberian Anticlericalism (1808-74) . 555 86. Liberalism and Catholic Minorities. 563 87. North American National Crisis (1850-65) . 570 88. Latin American Independence (1800-1900) . 580 [viii Contents] Section II: Materialist Agnosticism (1870— XI. INDIVIDUALISTIC HEYDAY ( 1870-1919 ) 590 89. Individualistic Materialism 590 90. Socialist Challenge 597 91. Leo XIII and Catholic Revival (1878-1903) . 603 92. St. Pius X and Catholic Action (1903-14) 610 93. Benedict XV and World War I (1914-22) . 617 94. Teutonic Kulturkampf (1871-1918) 623 95. Gallic Repudiation (1870-1918) 631 96. Twilight of Czardom (1855-1917) . 637 97. British Social Progress (1865-1922) 643 98. American Social Tensions (1865-86) 651 99. American Imperialism (1887-1920) .. 666 XII. TOTALITARIAN SHADOW (1917— ) . 682 100. The Totalitarian Menace 682 101. Pius XI and Catholic Liberty (1922-39) . 689 102. Pius XII and Totalitarianism (1939-58) . 695 103. Russian Communism 703 104. Communist Satellites . ....... 710 105. Italian Fascism 718 106. German Nazism . ......... 724 107. French Catholic Revival .. 731 108. Iberian Catholic Ordeals .. 737 109. Catholic Minorities 744 110. Militant British Catholicity 750 111. The British Commonwealth . 756 112. North American Primacy 765 113. Latin American Problems . 786 114. Catholicity and Dissent . 792 115. Partes Infidelium ... 799 Epilogue: Pope John and His Times 809 Appendices 815 Reading Lists 817 Index 857 Part I THE CHURCH IN THE HUMANIST WORLD * Section I SECULAR HUMANISM 14534776 I The Renaissance 1. THE SECULAR RENAISSANCE A. Advent of the Renaissance (1) PREDISPOSITIONS Secularism. Besides the political revolt against the clerical theocracy, revealed at Anagni and during the Great Schism, an intellectual aliena- tion of affections had long been in formation. This had developed slowly, for it required time for the ideas of the university intelligentsia to win general favor. But from the fourteenth century onward, a secularist viewpoint had become increasingly prominent within theocratic Chris- tendom, and a new atmosphere of thought was already vaguely termed vita moderna. Not only were temporal governments less responsive to supernatural and international ideals, but the papal curia was affected by its preoccupation, legitimate though it may have been, with politics and finance. Supernatural values, if still accorded paramount importance as ideals, were increasingly set aside in practice. The canon lawyer no longer had a monopoly of legal and administrative science; he was op- posed by the civil legist who sought his standards in pagan Roman antiquity. The clergy had ceased to be the only educated class, for the universities were now turning out graduates versed in philosophy, civil law, medicine, and the arts. As has been noted in reference to the Coun- cils of Constance and Basle, the spiritual authority of the ecclesiastical hierarchy was in danger of being obscured by a swarm of academic "experts," whose opinions were often heard against the voice of tradi- tion. In scholastic speculations, moreover, the Nominalist deductions, or rather distortions, of Scotus's philosophy were placing faith and reason [4 (The Renaissance 5] into a new opposition. And as the supernatural was thus divorced more and more from pure reason, the intellectual field was left open for a Naturalism disguised as Humanism. Humanism, indeed, can be taken in a legitimate and favorable sense, but here stress is being laid upon some of its actual theological implications; in this sense Humanism was to mean in the long run a reorientation of all human science, with man in- stead of God as the objective: learning would become anthropocentric rather than, as in the Age of Faith, theocentric. Nationalism. In the political sphere, nationalism was gaining in im- portance, though its appeal was still more dynastic than popular. But in the world of literature it is perhaps licit to speak of an inchoate popular nationalism. Symptomatic was the rapid progress of the ver- nacular languages. These had long since been the customary mode of communication among the common people; now the vernacular began to challenge the position of Latin as the vehicle of learned letters. In Italy, this tendency appears in Dante, who may have been influenced by Provencal troubadours exiled by the Albigensian Crusade. It is true that Dante and his immediate successors often seem half-ashamed of their works in the common idiom, but the trend was to prove irresistible, if slow. It may be significant also that this vogue arose during the ab- sence of the papacy at Avignon. In England, Langland, Chaucer, and Wycliffe made English respectable in literary circles. The first two were Catholics, though critical ones, but the last manifested a tendency to make the vernacular an