[JCCP 1.1 (2015) p90-106] ISSN 2040-0837 Moulüe (supraplanning) On the problem of the transfer of earthbound CCPNwords and concepts in the context of cultural exchange between China and the West Harro von Senger Abstract: According to Fei Xiaotong, ‘Words are the most important bridge’ (词是最主要的桥梁) between past and present and between generations belonging to the same culture. They are also the most important bridge between humans belonging to different cultures. The question arises to what extend can earthbound words (that is to say words which do not seem to have a readymade exact counterpart in the foreign language concerned) be transferred from one culture to the other in such a way that they are understood and maybe even of practical use in the other cultural environment while keeping their earthboundness, that is to say their original touch and meaning. This problem is discussed with respect to the Chinese word ‘moulüe (谋略)’, deeply rooted in the rich vocabulary of the ancientGLobal and modern Chinese Art of Planning. Keywords: Intercultural communicability of earthbound words; strategy, ‘moulüe (谋略) – Supraplanning’, Sun Zi’s Art of War.1 According to a report entitled ‘Wu Jiang commemorates Fei Xiaotong’s 100th birthday’ (People’s Daily Overseas Edition, 25th October, 2010): after the death of Fei Xiaotong, not only the number of visitors coming to the Kaixiangong Village did not decrease, but the scope of visitors broadened to people beyond the sociological circle.2 This shows that Fei Xiaotong does not only attract the interest of sociologists. His appeal is much wider. As a sinologist, I can find in Fei Xiaotong’s writings 1. The alleged author of the Sun Zi’s Art of War (《孙子兵法》) was originally spelt as Sun Tzu. This article uses Sun Zi based on the Chinese pinyin system. The book has commonly been referred to in three different ways: Sun Tzu’s Art of War, Sun Zi’s Art of War, and simply The Art of War 2. 费孝通逝世后，来开弦弓村的访问者不但没有减少，而且突破了社会学界的范围. Journal of China in Comparative Perspective《中国比较研究》 © CCPN Global 全球中国比较研究会 Moulüe (supraplanning) 91 many valuable statements with relevance for sinology as the science of the Chinese culture based primarily on the research of material in written or spoken Chinese language. Many of Fei Xiaotong’s insights can promote mutual Sino-European cultural awareness and serve as a theoretical base for the transfer of Chinese concepts to the West.3 The purpose of this paper is to show the importance of some of Fei Xiaotong’s thoughts for sinology. In his outstanding book Xiangtu Zhongguo (《乡土中国》), Fei Xiaotong CCPNsays that humans, thanks to their ability to remember, not only bridge their own past and present, but also… generations (Fei, 1992:55; Fei 1985:17).4 In the Chinese text, Fei Xiaotong points out that words are the most important bridge (Fei, 1985:17). In the English edition of Xiangtu Zhongguo (From the Soil), this phrase has been translated as ‘[T]his connection rests upon the ability to use words’ (Fei, 1992:55). Both the original Chinese version and the English translation give me the opportunity to add a further dimension to the statement of Fei Xiaotong, namely the transcultural one. Words are not only a bridge between past and present and between generations belonging to the same culture, but also between humans belonging to different cultures. My contribution is focused on Sino-Western communication. Speaking about intercultural exchange of words and the concepts transported by those words, I always have Sino-Western exchange in mind. The question which arises is GLobalthe following: can earthbound words and concepts be transferred from one culture to the other in such a way that they are understood and maybe even of practical use in the other cultural environment while keeping their earthboundness, that is to say their original touch and meaning? What are ‘earthbound words’? With this term, I refer to words which do not seem to have a readymade exact counterpart in the foreign language. A danger arises that we choose a convenient way by translating such words using some preexisting seemingly corresponding foreign words. Let me illustrate this problem with the Chinese word moulüe (谋 略), a word deeply rooted in the rich vocabulary of the ancient and modern Chinese Art of Planning. It is a word with which Chinese people are very familiar, ‘but which is very mysterious (Chai, 1994: 1).5 Recently, innumerable books have been published in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on moulüe. Just a few examples: 3. The starting point was a quotation from Fei Xiaotong in von Senger (1995). 4. 词是最主要的桥梁. Thanks to Dr Xiangqun Chang, the organizer of the conference to commemorate the centenary of Professor Fei Xiaotong’s birth, for providing me both the Chinese and English versions of Fei’s work. 5. 谋略，是人们十分熟悉而又非常神秘的字眼. 92 Harro von Senger • Chai Yuqiu (1991), Moulüe Ku (The Store of Moulüe), 4th edition, Beijing (柴宇球:《谋略库》). • Chai Yuqiu (1991), Moulüe Lun (On Moulüe), Beijing (柴宇球:《谋 略论》). • Xiao Shimei (2005), Mao Zedong Moulüexue (Mao Zedong’s Moulüe Erudition), Beijing (萧诗美:《毛泽东谋略学》). • He Kaiyao (2004), Xiaoping Moulüe ([Deng] Xiaoping’s Moulüe), Beijing (贺开耀: 《小平谋略》). CCPN• Yang Qingwang (ed.) (1992), Shiyong Moulüexue Cidian (Practical Dictionary of the Science of Moulüe), Harbin (杨庆旺主编: 《实用 谋略学词典》). However, as far as the ‘mysterious’Chinese word moulüe is concerned, those Chinese authors who try to render moulüe into the English language simply use terms such as ‘strategy’ or ‘stratagem’. Here two examples: 1) Gan Sheng (ed.) (1992), Shangzhan Moulüe Anli Quan Jian, Ürümuqi (甘生主编:《商战谋略案例全鉴 》). This book title is translated on the book cover of the Chinese edition as ‘The Encyclopaedia of Marketing Warfare Strategy Case’. That is to say, ‘shangzhan moulüe 商战谋略’ is translated with ‘warfare strategy’. 2) Li Bingyan (2004), Da Moulüe Yu Xin Junshi Biange, Beijing (李炳 彦, 《大谋略与新军事变革》). The title of this book is translated on page 390 as Military Stratagem and the New Revolution in Military Affairs. In other words, moulüeGLobal has been translated as ‘stratagem’. In the West, the Chinese term moulüe has until now received little academic attention. In the United States, only very few translations of moulüe have been published (Detweiler, 2010:9, 13-15): 1) The United States Department of Defense reported in its Annual Report to Congress: Military Power of the People’s Republic of China 2006: ‘In recent decades there has been a resurgence in the study of ancient Chinese statecraft within the PLA. Whole departments of military academies teach moulüe, or strategic deception, derived from Chinese experience through the millennia….’ 2) Mark Stokes6 referred to the Chinese word moulüe three times in his article ‘The Chinese Joint Aerospace Campaign: Strategy, Doctrine, and Force Modernization’. He wrote for instance: ‘Chinese views of deterrence and coercion differ slightly from Western perspectives. Chinese authors associate deterrence and coercion with the 6. Mark Stokes is a Country Director for the PRC and Taiwan within the Office of the Secretary of Defense, International Security Affairs, affiliated with the Strategic Studies Institute of the United States Army War College, former assistant air attaché at the U.S. Defense Attaché Office in Beijing from 1992-1995, and author ofChina’s Revolution in Doctrinal Affairs (2005), financed by the RAND Corporation and the CAN Corporation. Moulüe (supraplanning) 93 concept of stratagem (moulüe; 某略 [sic], which misspelt the character ‘ 谋’) the art of winning political or military contests through clever or superior strategic ploys, operational art, or tactics…’ 3) Ralph Sawyer7, a well-known translator of ancient Chinese military treatises, devoted in his book The Tao of Deception (2007) a small commentary to the recent moulüe trend in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and writes: CCPN‘Beginning in the late 1980s, but especially in 1991, coincident with the re-emergence of the classical military writings as viable subjects for investigation, there was a sudden surge of interest in strategy and stratagems (mou-lüeh)’ (Sawyer, 2007:329). In the same book, he translates moulüe also with ‘strategy’ (Sawyer, 2007:435 n. 6; 437 n. 18; 440 n. 39). This is puzzling because he also translates zhanlüe ( 战略) as ‘strategy’ (Sawyer, 2007:447 n. 25; 449 n. 50). All the above-mentioned Chinese and American authors or institutions lack attention to detail when they use expressions such as ‘strategic deception’, ‘stratagem’, ‘strategy and stratagems’ or ‘strategy’ for moulüe. ‘Deception’ as a translation for moulüe is too narrow. Even when moulüe operates with deception, it is not necessarily always ‘strategic deception’, but maybe tactical or operational deception. ‘Stratagem’ and ‘strategy’ are also inadequate translations of moulüe. A ‘stratagem’ is • An operation or act of GLobalgeneralship; usually an artifice or trick designed to outwit or surprise the enemy; in generalized sense: military artifice; • An artifice or trick; a device or scheme for obtaining an advantage; in generalized sense: skill in devising expedience; artifice; cunning. (Oxford English Dictionary, 1933). A ‘strategy’ is • The science of art of military command as applied to the overall planning and conduct of large scale combat operations. • A plan of action resulting from the practice of this science. • The art or skill of using stratagems in politics, business, courtship, or the like…. See stratagem. (American Heritage Dictionary, 1981:1273). • ‘…a careful plan or method or a clever stratagem…’ (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1976: 2256). According to my understanding of the vast meaning of moulüe, it is not limited to planning operations based on cunning only. Therefore, ‘stratagem’ as a translation of moulüe merely grasps one aspect of moulüe, not its 7. Ralph Sawyer is a leading American scholar of ancient and modern Chinese warfare, having worked extensively with major intelligence and defense agencies, as well as a Fellow of the Canadian Centre for Military and Strategic Studies.