View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Sydney eScholarship History of Inter-Group Conflict and Violence in Modern Fiji SANJAY RAMESH MA (RESEARCH) CENTRE FOR PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY 2010 Abstract The thesis analyses inter-group conflict in Fiji within the framework of inter-group theory, popularised by Gordon Allport, who argued that inter-group conflict arises out of inter-group prejudice, which is historically constructed and sustained by dominant groups. Furthermore, Allport hypothesised that there are three attributes of violence: structural and institutional violence in the form of discrimination, organised violence and extropunitive violence in the form of in-group solidarity. Using history as a method, I analyse the history of inter-group conflict in Fiji from 1960 to 2006. I argue that inter- group conflict in Fiji led to the institutionalisation of discrimination against Indo-Fijians in 1987 and this escalated into organised violence in 2000. Inter-group tensions peaked in Fiji during the 2006 general elections as ethnic groups rallied behind their own communal constituencies as a show of in-group solidarity and produced an electoral outcome that made multiparty governance stipulated by the multiracial 1997 Constitution impossible. Using Allport’s recommendations on mitigating inter-group conflict in divided communities, the thesis proposes a three-pronged approach to inter-group conciliation in Fiji, based on implementing national identity, truth and reconciliation and legislative reforms. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis is dedicated to the Indo-Fijians in rural Fiji who suffered physical violence in the aftermath of the May 2000 nationalist coup. I would like to acknowledge those Indo- Fijians who agreed to be interviewed at a time when they feared further racial violence in December 2000. The courage, determination and motivation of these Indo-Fijian victims prompted me to undertake the study of inter-group conflict in Fiji and seek its resolution. I would like to thank Fiji human rights organisations: the Citizens’ Constitutional Forum (CCF) and the Social Action for Human Rights (SAHARA), religious groups: the Catholic Church of Fiji and the Sanatan Dharam Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji. I would like to commend the Indo-Fijian communities in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, USA and the United Kingdom for providing aid and support, especially to those Indo-Fijians who were forced to take shelter from ethnic violence in refugee camps and with relatives. I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Lynda Ann-Blanchard for taking up the challenge of supervising this thesis. She provided excellent support throughout the writing and the reviewing process and provided invaluable comments on numerous drafts. I would like to acknowledge Associate Professor Jake Lynch for accepting me as a student at the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of Sydney and taking a keen interest in the study of inter-group conflict in Fiji. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Ken Macnab for reviewing the draft thesis and providing me with invaluable suggestions on improvements. I would like to thank my wife Anita Maharaj for providing editorial support and encouragement, my children Nikeeta Ramesh and Nikasha Ramesh for their understanding during my difficult emotional journey of compiling this thesis. Most of all, I would like to acknowledge my mother Sushila Rameshwar for bringing to my attention the suffering of Indo-Fijians following the May 2000 coup. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................ I PART 1: INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 Setting the Scene 1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 5 1.3 The Research Questions .......................................................................................... 8 1.4 The Thesis Structure ............................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 Theoretical Claims 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 13 2.2 Discourse Analysis ................................................................................................ 13 2.3 Ethnography ........................................................................................................... 16 2.4 Critical Theory....................................................................................................... 20 2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 27 PART 2: HISTORY OF INTER-GROUP CONFLICT IN FIJI Chapter 3 1960 to 1987-Establishing Inter-group Conflict in Fiji 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 29 3.2 1960 to 1987 ......................................................................................................... 31 3.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 35 Chapter 4 The 1987 Coups-Establishing Discrimination 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 37 4.3 The 1970 Constitution ........................................................................................... 37 4.4 The 1987 Coup ...................................................................................................... 39 4.5 The Second Coup of 1987 .................................................................................... 49 4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 51 Chapter 5 The 2000 Coup-Establishing Inter-group Violence 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 53 5.2 Indigenous Nationalist Revival ........................................................................... 59 5.3 19 May 2000-Coup Three ..................................................................................... 62 5.4. Violence against Indo-Fijians ............................................................................... 68 5.5 Justifications for the Violence ............................................................................. 71 5.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 74 Chapter 6 The 2006 General Election-Establishing In-group Solidarity 6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 76 6.2 The 2006 Elections: Major Political Parties and Voting ................................... 79 6.3 The Election Result .............................................................................................. 89 6.4 Power Sharing ...................................................................................................... 97 6.5 The Political Role of the Military ....................................................................... 99 6.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 101 PART 3: APPLICATION OF INTER-GROUP THEORY IN FIJI Chapter 7 Attributes of Inter-group Violence in Fiji 7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 104 7.2 Institutional and Structural Violence ................................................................. 106 7.3 Direct Physical Violence and fear of Violence ................................................. 112 7.3 Extropunitive Violence ....................................................................................... 119 Chapter 8 A proposal for Inter-group Conflict Resolution 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 128 8.2 National Identity ................................................................................................. 129 8.3 Truth and Reconciliation ................................................................................... 135 8.4 Legislative Reforms ........................................................................................... 141 8.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 149 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 151 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 156 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND ABBREVIATIONS FIGURES Figure 1 Map of the Fiji Islands ......................................................................................... 2 TABLES Table 1 Population of Fiji by Ethnicity-1966-2007 .................................................................... 3 Table 2 Comparative Voter Turnout in Fiji Elections-1999-2006 ........................................ 88 Table 3 2006 Fiji General Election