Election observation and monitoring in the midst of Kenyan elections: The case study of 1997 to 2013 elections By RATIDZO CHIDO MAKOMBE (815556) A DISSERTATION PRESENTED IN PATIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER OF ARTS DEFGREE IN THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS DEPARTMENT, FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND, JOHANNESBUG. 8 March 2019 Supervisor: Professor Malte Brosig Declaration I Ratidzo Chido Makombe, do hereby declare that this research is my original work and that to the best of my knowledge and belief, it has neither previously been submitted nor currently being submitted to any other University for a degree or any other award. Where someone else’s work has been used, due acknowledgment has been given and referenced made accordingly. Signature: ___________________ Date: 8 March 2019 i | P a g e Dedication To my late grandmother Nesta Musimwa. You saw a university graduate in me when I was only a week old, that goes without saying in your faith in me when I was nothing. Thank you. ii | P a g e Abstract African elections have been marred with electoral violence and this seems to be an oxymoron as elections should portray the will of the people. Because of this, election observation has been a growing phenomenon in democracy promotion during election periods. This paper intended to explore the role of election observers in the Kenyan elections of 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2013. The purpose of this research is to unpack whether the longevity of an election observation results to violence during the electoral cycle. The electoral cycle is the period in with the election process takes place and it involves three stages. These stages include the pre-electoral period, the electoral period and the post electoral period. When looking into the violence perpetuated during the electoral cycle the degrees of violence will be categorised into two categories, which are less violence, and more violence, which will be further explained. For the purposes of this research, the use of the concept electoral integrity will be employed, and an inductive research method will be used to build upon this conceptual framework. Key words Election Observations, Election Violence, Electoral Integrity, Kenya iii | P a g e Acknowledgements I would like to express my very great appreciation to Professor Malte Brosig for supervising me on a topic that is so dear to me. I would also like to offer my special thanks to Doctor Michelle Small and Prof John Stremlau for assisting me in the initial stages of this research project. I am particularly grateful to the Humanities Graduate Center front desk team of 2018 to 2019 for giving me a home to study and the opportunity to express myself as an upcoming intellectual. Your academic and social guidance have opened doors for me in ways I did not think possible and I am truly grateful. I would also like to thank my sister Tinashe Makombe, Gabriel Shamu, Doctor Kingsley Stephen Orievulur, and Musawenkosi Ndoro for giving me the mental strength to see this project through. I am also truly thankful for Gwinyai Taruvinga for being there for me throughout my journey from undergraduate studies up to this point. I know I would not have come this far without your academic guidance and in your belief in my academic capabilities. Thank you for seeing greatness where I could not imagine it. Finally, I wish to thank my parents, the best support system from the beginning of my time David and Alice Makombe for their belief in me and their constant prayers throughout my study I am truly grateful. Kutenda kwakitsi kurimumoyo. iv | P a g e Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii Key words ................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... v List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ ix Map of Kenya .......................................................................................................................... xii 1 Chapter One: Research design ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Hypothesis ................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Rational ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.4 Research Questions: .................................................................................................... 2 1.5 Primary research question ........................................................................................... 2 1.6 Secondary research questions...................................................................................... 2 1.7 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 3 1.8 Variables...................................................................................................................... 3 1.8.1 Independent variable ............................................................................................ 4 1.8.2 Dependent variable .............................................................................................. 5 1.9 Operationalisation ....................................................................................................... 5 1.9.1 Operationalization of violence ............................................................................. 5 1.10 Empirical Research. .................................................................................................... 7 1.10.1 Case selection: Kenyan Elections ........................................................................ 7 1.10.3 Data sources ....................................................................................................... 11 1.11 Chapter outline .......................................................................................................... 11 2 Chapter Two: Theoretical Approach ................................................................................ 13 v | P a g e Electoral Integrity in relation to election observation and electoral violence ......................... 13 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Representational Democracy..................................................................................... 13 2.3 The importance of elections ...................................................................................... 15 2.4 Theoretical framework: Electoral Integrity ............................................................... 17 2.4.1 Global Norms and Election Observation ........................................................... 20 2.4.2 First and Second-order malpractices in relation to Election Violence .............. 22 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 24 3 Chapter Three: Electoral History of Kenya ...................................................................... 26 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 26 3.2 Political history of Kenya .......................................................................................... 26 3.3 Changes in the Kenyan Constitution ......................................................................... 29 3.4 Election violence in Kenya ....................................................................................... 30 3.4.1 Causes of election violence ................................................................................ 31 3.5 Election observation in Kenya .................................................................................. 32 3.5.1 Actors ................................................................................................................. 33 3.6 Role of observers in Kenya ....................................................................................... 33 3.6.1 International observers ....................................................................................... 34 3.6.2 Citizen observers ................................................................................................ 35 3.7 The Contribution to Election Observation to Violence in Kenya ............................. 36 3.7.1 Longevities of observation periods .................................................................... 36 3.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................