Epistemology An overview Contents 1 Main article 1 1.1 Epistemology ............................................. 1 1.1.1 Background and meaning ................................... 1 1.1.2 Knowledge .......................................... 1 1.1.3 Acquiring knowledge ..................................... 5 1.1.4 Skepticism .......................................... 7 1.1.5 See also ............................................ 7 1.1.6 References .......................................... 8 1.1.7 Works cited .......................................... 9 1.1.8 External links ......................................... 10 2 Knowledge 11 2.1 Knowledge ............................................... 11 2.1.1 Theories of knowledge .................................... 11 2.1.2 Communicating knowledge ................................. 12 2.1.3 Situated knowledge ...................................... 13 2.1.4 Partial knowledge ...................................... 13 2.1.5 Scientific knowledge ..................................... 13 2.1.6 Religious meaning of knowledge ............................... 14 2.1.7 See also ............................................ 15 2.1.8 References .......................................... 15 2.1.9 External links ......................................... 16 2.2 Belief ................................................. 16 2.2.1 Knowledge and epistemology ................................. 17 2.2.2 As a psychological phenomenon ............................... 17 2.2.3 Epistemological belief compared to religious belief ..................... 18 2.2.4 Formation ........................................... 18 2.2.5 Justified true belief ...................................... 19 2.2.6 Modification ......................................... 19 2.2.7 Partial ............................................. 20 2.2.8 Prediction ........................................... 20 2.2.9 Religion ............................................ 20 2.2.10 Systems ............................................ 23 i ii CONTENTS 2.2.11 See also ............................................ 24 2.2.12 Notes ............................................. 25 2.2.13 Further reading ........................................ 27 2.2.14 External links ......................................... 27 2.3 Truth ................................................. 27 2.3.1 Definition and etymology ................................... 28 2.3.2 Major theories ........................................ 29 2.3.3 Formal theories ........................................ 32 2.3.4 Notable views ......................................... 34 2.3.5 In medicine and psychiatry .................................. 38 2.3.6 In religion: omniscience .................................... 38 2.3.7 See also ............................................ 39 2.3.8 Notes ............................................. 39 2.3.9 References .......................................... 42 2.3.10 External links ......................................... 44 2.4 Criteria of truth ............................................ 45 2.4.1 Authority ........................................... 45 2.4.2 Coherence ........................................... 45 2.4.3 Consensus gentium ...................................... 45 2.4.4 Consistency (mere) ...................................... 45 2.4.5 Consistency (strict) ...................................... 45 2.4.6 Correspondence ........................................ 45 2.4.7 Custom ............................................ 46 2.4.8 Emotions ........................................... 46 2.4.9 Instinct ............................................ 46 2.4.10 Intuition ............................................ 46 2.4.11 Majority rule ......................................... 46 2.4.12 Naïve Realism ........................................ 46 2.4.13 Pragmatic ........................................... 46 2.4.14 Revelation ........................................... 47 2.4.15 Time ............................................. 47 2.4.16 Tradition ........................................... 47 2.4.17 See also ............................................ 47 2.4.18 Footnotes ........................................... 47 2.5 Theaetetus ............................................... 47 2.5.1 The framing of the dialogue ................................. 48 2.5.2 Midwife to knowledge .................................... 48 2.5.3 Philosophical labor ...................................... 48 2.5.4 Examining the offspring .................................... 48 2.5.5 Abusing the “orphan” of Protagoras ............................. 48 2.5.6 The absent-minded philosopher ................................ 49 CONTENTS iii 2.5.7 The men of flux ........................................ 49 2.5.8 The mind as aviary ...................................... 49 2.5.9 Socrates and the Jury ..................................... 49 2.5.10 Knowledge as judgment with an account ........................... 49 2.5.11 Conclusion .......................................... 50 2.5.12 Significant references in the dialogue ............................. 50 2.5.13 Notes ............................................. 50 2.5.14 References .......................................... 50 2.5.15 Selected secondary literature ................................. 50 2.5.16 External links ......................................... 51 2.6 Gettier problem ............................................ 51 2.6.1 History ............................................ 51 2.6.2 Knowledge as justified true belief ............................... 51 2.6.3 Gettier’s counterexamples ................................... 52 2.6.4 False premises ........................................ 52 2.6.5 More general Gettier-style problems ............................. 52 2.6.6 Other responses to Gettier .................................. 53 2.6.7 Notes ............................................. 56 2.6.8 References .......................................... 57 2.6.9 External links ......................................... 57 2.7 Reliabilism ............................................... 57 2.7.1 Objections ........................................... 58 2.7.2 References .......................................... 58 2.7.3 External links ......................................... 59 2.8 Internalism and externalism ...................................... 59 2.8.1 Moral philosophy ....................................... 59 2.8.2 Epistemology ......................................... 60 2.8.3 Semantics ........................................... 61 2.8.4 Philosophy of mind ...................................... 61 2.8.5 Historiography of science .................................. 62 2.8.6 See also ............................................ 62 2.8.7 References .......................................... 62 2.8.8 Further reading ........................................ 63 2.8.9 External links ......................................... 63 3 Acquiring knowledge 64 3.1 A priori and a posteriori ........................................ 64 3.1.1 Examples ........................................... 64 3.1.2 Analyticity and necessity ................................... 64 3.1.3 History ............................................ 65 3.1.4 See also ............................................ 66 3.1.5 Notes ............................................. 66 iv CONTENTS 3.1.6 Footnotes ........................................... 66 3.1.7 References .......................................... 67 3.1.8 Further reading ........................................ 67 3.1.9 External links ......................................... 68 3.2 Analytic-synthetic distinction ..................................... 68 3.2.1 Kant .............................................. 68 3.2.2 Logical positivists ....................................... 70 3.2.3 Two-dimensionalism ..................................... 71 3.2.4 Quine’s criticisms ....................................... 71 3.2.5 See also ............................................ 72 3.2.6 Footnotes ........................................... 73 3.2.7 References and further reading ................................ 73 3.2.8 External links ......................................... 74 3.3 Empiricism .............................................. 74 3.3.1 Etymology .......................................... 74 3.3.2 History ............................................ 74 3.3.3 See also ............................................ 81 3.3.4 Endnotes ........................................... 81 3.3.5 References .......................................... 82 3.3.6 External links ......................................... 83 3.4 Rationalism .............................................. 83 3.4.1 Philosophical usage ...................................... 84 3.4.2 Background .......................................... 86 3.4.3 History ............................................ 86 3.4.4 See also ............................................ 88 3.4.5 References .......................................... 89 3.4.6 External links ......................................... 91 3.5 Constructivist epistemology ...................................... 91 3.5.1 Tenets ............................................. 91 3.5.2 Origin of the term ....................................... 91 3.5.3 History ............................................ 91 3.5.4 Constructivism and sciences ................................. 93 3.5.5 Constructivist trends