FACTORS INFLUENCING ACADEMIC AND EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES: A MULTIPHASE Q-METHODOLOGY STUDY by Isabel Fischer Canterbury Christ Church University Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Education 2019 Abstract This thesis investigates the perceptions of barriers and enablers impacting academic and employment outcomes of students of Generation Z. It is a topic of multi-disciplinary importance spanning the fields of education, business and management, psychology and sociology. It is framed within a changing UK Higher Education landscape including increased internationalisation. This study adopts Q-methodology, a mixed-methods study that quantitatively evaluates qualitative viewpoints. Q-methodology is extended by performing additional analyses at the intersection of gender, ethnicity, and nationality. A total of 304 students, 44 non-higher-education employees and 8 faculty members, voiced their opinions to explain gaps in student attainment. Moreover, degree results from 2,024 students who graduated between July 2016 and July 2019 from one single UK business school, were evaluated. Findings of a self-reported lack of confidence of female students, linked partly to a perceived lack of verbal communication skills, suggest that one of the consequences of a lack of confidence might be that female students work harder than their male counterparts to compensate, resulting in a higher mean average grade. By doing so, they tend not to take advantage of more long- term networking and career opportunities, and also feel more stressed, which, in turn, further diminishes self-confidence. Tackling the confidence and verbal communication gap is currently deprioritised by faculty, who focus on knowledge transmission as part of their teaching. Suggestions are made that aim to raise awareness of more informed and nuanced teaching practices that embed verbal communication skills, to develop student agency independent of gender. By keeping the first part of each research phase in line with traditional Q-methodology, and by then adding accessible R-type analyses, it was possible to reveal results that aim to raise awareness for more audience- centric teaching and research practices across Q and non-Q communities. 1 Acknowledgments This thesis could not have been completed without the support and guidance of Dr Lyn Haynes as primary supervisor. Throughout my research, Lyn provided encouragement and support for which I am very grateful. I would also like to thank Dr Christian Beighton and Dr Lynn Revell for their guidance as members of the supervisory panel. In addition, I am grateful for the support received from my family, in-laws, friends, and colleagues during recent years. I would also like to express my gratitude to the study participants who generously gave their time to participate in my research. And finally, I was impressed by the helpfulness of the Q-community worldwide. There were regular email exchanges via the Q listserv set up by Prof Steven R. Brown and I benefited from many informative individual discussions. Thank you. Declaration Whilst registered as a candidate for the above degree, I have not been registered for any other research award. The results and conclusions embodied in this thesis are the work of the named candidate and have not been submitted for any other academic awards. A separate sheet advising of funding of this degree will be submitted at the viva. Number of words: 54,896 The word count excludes the list of references and the appendices. 2 Table of Contents List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 5 Abbreviations and Definitions ............................................................................................. 6 Abbreviations / acronyms .................................................................................................. 6 Key definitions .................................................................................................................. 7 Word choices specific to this project ................................................................................. 9 Chapter 1. Introduction to the Project and Related Literature ..................................... 10 1.1. Introduction and chapter outline ............................................................................... 10 1.2. The context ............................................................................................................... 11 Positioning the research within the external context ........................................ 11 Autobiographical lens: from inception to ethics approval ............................... 13 1.3. Literature review ....................................................................................................... 18 Factors influencing academic achievement and career progression ............... 18 Pertinent Q-methodology literature review ...................................................... 30 1.4. Research objective .................................................................................................... 36 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 36 Timeline ............................................................................................................ 37 Originality and significance ............................................................................. 39 Overview of concepts used to respond to the research questions ..................... 39 1.5. Delimitations ............................................................................................................ 42 Applicability of theories, concepts and content ................................................ 42 Intersecting identities and multiple selves ........................................................ 45 Known, intentional, and acknowledged method-related delimitations ............. 47 1.6. Summary ................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 2. Methodology and Methods ............................................................................. 51 2.1. Introduction and chapter outline ............................................................................... 51 2.2. Generic underpinnings: from epistemology to Q-methodology and beyond ........... 52 Epistemological and theoretical underpinnings ............................................... 53 Q-methodology as an integrated mixed-methods research design ................... 58 Tools and Techniques ....................................................................................... 60 2.3. Study-specific techniques and tools ......................................................................... 66 Triangulation and sampling ............................................................................. 66 Research steps per phase .................................................................................. 71 2.4. Summary ................................................................................................................... 84 Chapter 3. Findings ............................................................................................................ 87 3.1. Introduction and chapter outline ............................................................................... 87 3.2. Phase 1: Factors influencing academic and future employment success ................. 90 Overview and research questions ..................................................................... 90 Semi-structured questionnaires to develop the concourse (QUAL) ................. 90 First Q-methodology study (QUANT) ............................................................... 91 First R-analysis (quant) .................................................................................... 95 Further qualitative input based on the Q-methodology surveys (qual) ............ 98 Phase 1 summary .............................................................................................. 99 3.3. Phase 2: Differences by demographic attributes .................................................... 100 Overview and research question ..................................................................... 100 Focus Groups with students (QUAL) ............................................................. 100 Second Q-methodology study (QUANT) ......................................................... 106 Second R-analysis (quant) .............................................................................. 111 Qualitative input on confidence (qual) ........................................................... 114 Phase 2 summary ............................................................................................ 115 3 3.4. Phase 3: ‘So what? Now what?’ ............................................................................. 116 Overview and research questions ................................................................... 116 Faculty interviews (QUAL) ............................................................................. 118 Four short surveys – moving away from faculty back to the initial study participants: workers and students ........................................................................... 128 Phase 3 summary ...........................................................................................