‘Lord of Conquest, avigation and Commerce’ Diplomacy and the Imperial Ideal During the Reign of John V, 1707-1750 João Vicente Carvalho de Melo Submitted to Swansea University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Swansea University 2012 ii iii Summary This dissertation explores the diplomatic practices of the Portuguese Estado da Índia in the first half of the eighteenth century, a period when the Portuguese imperial project in the Indian Ocean faced drastic changes imposed by the aggressive competition of the European rivals of the Estado and local powers such as the Marathas or the Omani. Based on documents from the Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal (Lisbon), the Biblioteca da Ajuda, the Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, the Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, the British Library and the Historical Archives of Goa, this research suggests that diplomatic practices of the Portuguese Estado da Índia were not only concerned with protecting the interests of the Portuguese Crown in the West Coast of India, but were a part of a strategy designed to promote a prestigious reputation for the Portuguese Crown in the region despite the ascendancy of other European imperial powers. Besides a detailed analysis and description of the processes and circumstances by and which diplomatic contacts between local sovereigns and the Portuguese colonial administration were established, the rituals and language of diplomatic ceremonies with Asian sovereigns were also examined in detail in order to give a precise account of the ways in which Portuguese diplomats presented the Portuguese Crown to Asian rulers. iv Declarations and Statements This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ...................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed ..................................................................... Date ........................................................................ I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ..................................................................... Date ........................................................................ v Contents Summary ........................................................................................................................ iii Declarations and Statements ........................................................................................ iv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... vii List of Illustrations ...................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. ix Glossary ........................................................................................................................ xvi 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 2. The King’s Alter Ego: The public image of the viceroy ........................................ 25 3. The Ceremonial Rules of Goan diplomacy ............................................................ 44 4. Seeking Prestige and Survival: Gift-exchange practices between the Portuguese Estado da Índia and Asian rulers ........................................................................... 68 5. Vassals and Friends of Goa: The Estado da Índia and its relations and rituals of vassalage .................................................................................................................. .95 6. The cartaz and the Portuguese claim to the ‘Lordship of the Seas of India’ .... 126 7. Mombasa : A failed project to materialise the royal ditado ............................... 151 8. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 177 Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 196 Primary Sources ........................................................................................................ 196 Secondary Sources .................................................................................................... 202 vi vii Acknowledgements My first words of gratitude are for the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT). Without the sponsorship of the FCT this work would not have been possible. I am also very grateful to my supervisors, Stefan Halikowski-Smith and Huw Bowen. Their guidance, suggestions, comments and patience were essential. Muito obrigado . Any errors and mistakes are my fault. This dissertation was written in three countries. In Great Britain I am very grateful to wise comments of John Villiers and Malyn Newitt. The professionalism and efficiency of the British Library staff should also be praised and mentioned. In Portugal, Diogo Ramada Curto, João Paulo Oliveira e Costa, Manuel Lobato, André Murteira and Timothy Walker (an adopted Portuguese) helped me with their suggestions and comments. My words of gratitude are also extended to everyone at the Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal (Lisbon), Academia das Ciências de Lisboa and the Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (special thanks to the always helpful and friendly Sr. Fernando). In India (Goa) my thanks go to José and Clara Lobo, for their hospitality, Vasco Silveira, António Sabido Costa and Eduardo Kol de Carvalho for their friendship and help. At the Historical Archives of Goa I am very grateful to Blossom Medeira and Ramishwar. I am also very grateful to Ines Zupanov and Ernestina Carreira for sharing with me their experiences in the Goan archives and commenting my ideas on early modern Goa. The love and patience of Mãe, Vóvó and Ni made this work possible. My walks with Toffy helped my thoughts. The constant presence, companionship, encouragement and love of Margarida made all this work and time worthwhile. viii List of Illustrations India, c. 1707……………………………………………………………………………xi India, c. 1740-1750…………………………………………………………………..…xii BNP C.C. 1781 A., Estado da India c. 1747. …………………………………………xiii BNP Inv. 10922, Estado da India c. 1770-1777. ……………………………………...xiv ix Abbreviations ACCSSL - Arquivo da Casa dos Condes de Sabugosa/São Lourenço ACL – Academia das Ciências de Lisboa AHU – Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino APO – Arquivo Português Oriental BFUP – Boletim da Filmoteca Ultramarina BL – British Library BNP – Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal HAG – Historical Archives of Goa MR – Livro das Monções x xi India, C. 1707. Based on Maria de Jesus dos Mártires Lopes, Goa Setecentista: Tradição e Modernidade (Lisbon: Universidade Católica, 1999), p. 25. Legend: P – Portuguese, E – English, F – French, DEN – Danish, D – Dutch xii India, C. 1740-1750. Based on Maria de Jesus dos Mártires Lopes, Goa Setecentista: Tradição e Modernidade (Lisbon: Universidade Católica, 1999), p. 34. Legend: P – Portuguese, E – English, F – French, DEN – Danish, D – Dutch Remaining Mughal territories xiii Estado da India c. 1747 (BNP C.C. 1781 A.) xiv Estado da India c. 1770-1777 (BNP Inv. 10922) xv xvi Glossary Abunhado: A native rural worker who was forced to live and work in the estate where he or she was born. Ajudante-General: A military rank equivalent to a Lieutenant-General. Armada do Estreito: The Portuguese war fleet deployed to protect the Portuguese ships at the Persian Gulf and the factory at Bandar-Kung. Armada do orte: The Portuguese war fleet deployed to protect the Provincia do Norte. Armada do Sul: The Portuguese war fleet deployed to protect the Portuguese ships in the Kanara coast at the factory at Mangalore. Bastão de mando: If translated to English literally it would mean baton of command. It was used by the viceroys as an equivalent to the royal sceptre, and was designed to be the ultimate symbol of the viceroy’s authority. Brahman: The first varna of the Hindu caste system. Cabido: A Portuguese word for the chapter of a Cathedral. It can also be translated to English as canon (priest). Cadeira de espaldas: A Portuguese word for armchair. It was used to describe an imposing and lavishly decorated chair that was used in most viceregal ceremonies as an equivalent to the royal throne. Cafre: An early modern Portuguese term used to describe Africans. The word is derived from the Arabic kaffir (infidel). The Portuguese took the word from Arab slave merchants in the Swahili Coast, who used the word kaffir to refer to the local populations. xvii Capitão de mar e guerra: A post in the Estado’s army equivalent to a captain. Carreira da Índia: The sea route between Lisbon and India via the Cape of Good Hope. Carta de poder: A document signed by the Portuguese king which defined the powers and functions of a viceroy during his mandate. Cartaz : A naval passport granted by the Portuguese