TRANSIT ADVERTISING WITH ALCOHOL AND VIOLENT CONTENT ON PUBLIC PLATFORMS: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF ADVERTISEMENTS WITHIN THE NEW YORK CITY SUBWAY SYSTEM by Marvin Fullwood Dissertation Committee: Professor Charles E. Basch, Sponsor Professor Michael A. Carrera Approved by the Committee on the Degree of Doctor of Education Date 16 May 2018 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education in Teachers College, Columbia University 2018 ABSTRACT TRANSIT ADVERTISING WITH ALCOHOL AND VIOLENT CONTENT ON PUBLIC PLATFORMS: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF ADVERTISEMENTS WITHIN THE NEW YORK CITY SUBWAY SYSTEM Marvin Fullwood Two of the most important behaviors affecting youth are alcohol use and aggression. Advertisements that promote alcohol consumption and display aggressive images and words may influence attitudes and behaviors of youth. While there is considerable research on these kinds of advertisements in various media channels, there is limited research describing such advertising within public transit systems. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to describe and prevalence and characteristics of advertisements about alcohol and with violent content on the platform walls of the New York City subway system. Methods: A cross-sectional design with direct observations was used to document all advertisements in four boroughs: Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Queens. Subway stations with and without advertising were identified and selected characteristics of advertisements about alcohol and with violent content were described. The presence of advertisements was examined based on racial/ethnic and income characteristics of station location using logistic regression. Results: Of 472 subway stations observed, 143 contained 8,737 advertisements, including duplicates. Of the 143 stations with any type of advertisements, 76 (53.1%) displayed one or more alcohol advertisements while over 95% included one or more advertisements with violent content (136 of 143). Of the 8,737 advertisements observed, 129 (1.5%) were for alcohol (including three public service messages) and 1,154 (13.2%) had violent content. Almost two-thirds of the 129 advertisements about alcohol were for beer. There were 144 advertisements that pictured guns. Not one public service announcement for violence prevention was observed. Examination of the presence of advertisements based on racial/ethnic and income characteristics of station location (n = 454 with complete data) showed no differences for advertisements with violent content, but greater odds of alcohol advertisements being present in locations with a higher percentage of Black population. Considerable variability existed between neighborhoods within each borough. Conclusions: Almost 9,000 advertisements were documented in this study. Despite the low number of advertisements about alcohol, one or more such advertisements was present in over one-half of the stations with advertising. Advertisements with violent content were pervasive. Recommendations focus on how public transit spaces can be used more productively to help cultivate caring communities. © Copyright Marvin Fullwood 2018 All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION Most of us go through life with our brakes on, holding back, not giving all, not sharing all of ourselves. Most of us go to our graves still holding on, rather than letting go, because of past experiences, past defeats, past pain. You have to separate what you do from who I am. During the dissertation process, you find out who you are. I dedicate this great work to my Mama. She witnessed the hard times and the falling down, and told me: Anything you want, you can have. So, claim it, work hard to get it. When you get it, reach back and pull someone else up. Inspire to make a difference! To my advisor: Nothing in life is worthwhile unless you take risk. You took a risk on me and told me: To get something you never had, you have to do something you never did. If you are going to be good at something, it does take a while. Just enjoy the getting there. You are going to get fed up, disheartened and all that. But what I can say after 15 or 20 years, I learned how to do something well, and I enjoyed the getting there as much as the being there. We created melodies with Dr. Carrera that will forever live. To my supporters: Pam Howard, Eve Cardona, Dominic Bannister, Louise Williamson, Randal Hale, Valerie Marchenko, Teri Rosales & The BayArea!!!!!!!!!! Dr. Carrera, you taught me how to fall forward on faith & exquisite focus. In memory of Miss. Lois, Rev. L.K. Jones, Eula Grayson. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There is no passion to be found playing small – in settling for a life that is less than the one you are capable of living. Nelson Mandela It’s an iterative process! Charles E. Basch I can’t live my life based on what other people think about me, so, I can’t concern myself too much with what other people think. It’s just not healthy. Denzel Washington M.F. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................vii Chapter I - INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1 Nature of the Problem .................................................................................................. 3 Purpose of Study ......................................................................................................... 4 Specific Aims .............................................................................................................. 6 Rationale for the Study ................................................................................................ 6 Chapter II - Literature Review ......................................................................................... 9 Public Acceptance ....................................................................................................... 9 Early Investment........................................................................................................ 10 Developmental Capabilities/Neurodevelopment ..................................................... 12 Disruptions to the life course ................................................................................. 13 Contribution of Environmental and Social Factors ................................................. 14 Advertising ................................................................................................................ 15 Advertising Expenditure ........................................................................................ 16 Influence of Advertising ........................................................................................ 16 Targeting Vulnerable Populations .......................................................................... 18 Alcohol...................................................................................................................... 19 Temperance Movement ......................................................................................... 19 Movement to Control Alcoholic Beverage Marketing ............................................ 22 Public Transit and Alcohol..................................................................................... 26 Violence .................................................................................................................... 28 Violence in American Media ................................................................................. 29 Appeal of Media Violence ..................................................................................... 30 Media Violence Equals Aggression........................................................................ 31 How Does Exposure to Violence Encourage Aggression? ...................................... 34 Public Transportation and Violence ....................................................................... 36 Summary ................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter III - METHODS ............................................................................................... 39 Setting ....................................................................................................................... 39 Sampling and Station Configuration .......................................................................... 40 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................ 42 Instrumentation.......................................................................................................... 43 QGIS ..................................................................................................................... 43 Geography ............................................................................................................. 44 PostgreSQL ........................................................................................................... 46 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 46 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................ 48 Chapter IV - RESULTS ................................................................................................. 51 Overview of Selected Aspects of Advertising in the New York City Subway System 51 Descriptive