1 2 3 4 Preface The “Transitional Justice Barometer” continues to support the process of transitional justice in Tunisia, through a research work that involves Tunisian experts from “Al-Kawakibi Democracy Transition Center”, and international experts from the “University of York” (England) and “Impunity Watch” (Netherlands). The Barometer, jointly with its partners, has chosen to focus this third study on “memorialization” and “collective memory”, being important elements in the process of transitional justice that the Tunisian experience has not addressed yet. The study is entitled “History and Collective Memory in Tunisia : Contrasted Notions. Teaching Recent History and the Figure of Bourguiba Today.” As part of this qualitative research, interviews were conducted with 45 experts and teachers of history and civic education in the Governorates of Sousse (Center-East) and Gafsa (Saouth-West). With this third study having been carried out, the six regions of the country are now covered by the Transitional Justice Barometer project. The study places special focus on Habib Bourguiba, a pivotal figure in the modern history of Tunisia. It examines the textbooks used in the teaching of history and assesses their impact on collective memory. The study ends with a number of conclusions and recommendations that seek to contribute to the reform of the teaching of history and civic education, supposed to be one of the outputs of the transitional justice process. To conclude, the “Transitional Justice Barometer” wishes to thank all the interviewed teachers and experts for having contributed to the success of this research work. On its part, “Al-Kawakibi Democracy Transition Center” wishes to thank its partners, the “University of York” and “Impunity Watch”, for the valuable expertise they have transferred to Tunisian researchers. Amine Ghali Director/ Al-Kawakibi Democracy Transition Center 5 6 Table of Contents Preface ..................................................................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 7 Executive summary ......................................................................................................................... 9 Part I: Memory and transition: What role for education? ............................................................. 10 1. The notion of collective memory and its ambiguities ........................................................... 10 2. The relationship between history and memory: The impossibility of neutrality? ................. 11 3. Collective memory and democratic pluralism: memories of minorities and of the transition‟s „losers‟........................................................................................................................................... 13 4. Human rights, history and collective memory ....................................................................... 17 The international level ............................................................................................................... 17 The national level ...................................................................................................................... 17 5. Memory and memorialisation ................................................................................................ 18 6. The role of education in transitional justice .......................................................................... 20 History textbooks: between policy and pedagogy..................................................................... 21 Teachers .................................................................................................................................... 23 The importance of debate .......................................................................................................... 25 Part II: The (re)invention of the past in Tunisia: a political strategy? .......................................... 27 7. The figure of Bourguiba ........................................................................................................ 27 A legacy of reforms ................................................................................................................... 27 An authoritarian tendency ......................................................................................................... 28 A return to the frontline ............................................................................................................. 29 The „return of Bourguiba‟? ....................................................................................................... 30 The figure of Bourguiba in politics: a mixed picture ................................................................ 31 Towards a reconciliation of interpretations of memory? .......................................................... 34 8. Bourguiba in history textbooks.............................................................................................. 35 A chronological approach ......................................................................................................... 36 A largely descriptive approach .................................................................................................. 40 A selective approach ................................................................................................................. 46 Part III: Improving the teaching of history - some recommendations for teachers ...................... 50 9. Recommendations Relevant to the Teaching of History ....................................................... 50 Additions to Teaching Materials ............................................................................................... 50 Teaching Methodologies ........................................................................................................... 52 A Framework of Reform ........................................................................................................... 54 10. Recommendations concerning the process of memory ..................................................... 55 7 What Memory to Preserve? ....................................................................................................... 55 Memorialization processes ........................................................................................................ 56 What memorialisation tools to use? .......................................................................................... 58 Memory and Culture ................................................................................................................. 59 11. Memory, History and Transitional Justice ......................................................................... 60 12. Summary of recommendations .......................................................................................... 61 Appendix 1. Research Methodology ........................................................................................ 62 Demographics of respondents ............................................................................................... 62 Sousse .................................................................................................................................... 63 Gafsa ...................................................................................................................................... 63 Supporting associations and partners ........................................................................................ 64 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 65 French language Bibliography .................................................................................................. 66 Arabic Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 68 Appendix 2. List of persons interviewed ................................................................................. 70 Appendix 3. Questionnaire for teachers ................................................................................... 71 Appendix 4. The textbooks ...................................................................................................... 73 History textbook for students in the 6th year of primary school ............................................... 73 List of authors ........................................................................................................................ 74 Table of contents ................................................................................................................... 75 History textbook for students in the 9th year of primary school ............................................... 76 Front page .............................................................................................................................. 76 Author list .............................................................................................................................. 77 Table of contents ................................................................................................................... 78 History textbook for student in the 4th year of secondary school ............................................. 79 Table of contents