AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS FULFILLING THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE RUTGERS UNIVERSITY HISTORY DEPARTMENT HONORS PROGRAM Tierra Rota (Broken Land) Cultural Identity and Indigenous Resistance during the Guatemalan Civil War Jessica Schink Spring 2009 ii Table of Contents 1. Acknowledgements…………………………………………..iii 2. Introduction…………………………………………………..1 3. Storms Brewing: Foundations of the Left in the Highlands….12 4. The So-Called “Two Armies”: What They Offered, and Their Uses of Mayan Identity……..22 5. In their Own Words: Indigenous Perspectives on Resistance…………………………………...36 6. Truth Commission Findings on Indigenous Resistance……...45 7. Conclusion……………………………………………………55 8. Bibliography………………………………………………….iii iii Acknowledgements I am grateful for the attentiveness and patience with which my two advisors, Professors Camilla Townsend and Aldo Lauria Santiago, guided me in this process. I also thank the Aresty Research Center for providing the funding that made this research happen, and the Rutgers University School of Arts and Sciences for overseeing that funding. Most of all, I am thankful that my family was able to tolerate my unusual schedule and fluctuating moods over the past year as this project developed. iv Bibliography Archive of the Fourth Russell Tribunal on the Rights of the Indians in the Americas. Rutgers University Microfiche Collection. Arias, Arturo, ed. The Rigoberta Menchú Controversy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001. Carmack, Robert M., ed. Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. CIA National Foreign Assessment Center. Guatemala: The Climate for Insurgency. Washington, D.C.: 1981. Comisión de Esclarecimiento Historico. Guatemala, Memoria de Silencio. Guatemala City: Oficina de Servicios para Proyectos de las Naciones Unidas, 1999. Dunkerley, James. Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America. New York: Verso, 1988. Foppa, Alaide. “Death and Guatemalan Defense: Women.” The WIRE Collective. New York: Ragged Edge Press, 1983, 31-33. Gonzales, Ramelle. Threads Breaking the Silence: Stories of the Women of the CPR-Sierra from the Civil War in Guatemala. Antigua Guatemala: Foundations for Education, Inc., 2005. Grandin, Greg. The Blood of Guatemala: A History of Race and Nation. Durham: Duke University Press, 2000. ______. 1999. “Guatemalan Bloodshed.” New York Times. May 16. ______. The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. ______. “To End with All These Evils: Ethnic Transformation and Community Mobilization in Guatemala‟s Western Highlands, 1954-1980.” Latin American Perspectives, vol. 24, no. 2. (March 1997): 7-34. Harbury, Jennifer, ed.. Bridge of Courage: Life Stories of the Guatemalan Compañeros and Compañeras. Monroe: Common Courage Press, 1995. ______. Searching for Everardo: A Story of Love, War, and the CIA in Guatemala. New York: Warner Books, 1997. Iglesia Guatemalteca en Exilio. “Edición Especial: Refugiados (1982).” Princeton University Microform Collection, Church Materials from Guatemala II, 1913-2001. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. Guatemala 1978: The Massacre at Panzós. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 1978. Lupe, María. “Testimony of a Guatemalan Revolutionary.” Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations. Edited by John Charles Chasteen and James A. Wood. Lanham: SR Books, 2005. May, Rachel. Terror in the Countryside: Campesino Responses to Political Violence in Guatemala, 1954-1985. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001. Menchú, Rigoberta. I, Rigoberta Menchú:An Indian Woman in Guatemala. Edited by Elisabeth Burgos-Debray. Translated by Ann Wright. New York: Verso, 1984. Metz, Brent. Ch’orti’-Maya Survival in Eastern Guatemala: Indigeneity in Transition. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006. Navarro, Mireya. 1999. “Guatemalan Army Waged „Genocide,‟ New Report Finds.” New York Times, February 26. v Nelson, Diane. “Dispossession and Possession: The Maya, Identi/ties, and „Post‟ War Guatemala.” Identity Conflicts: Can War Be Regulated? Edited by Esther E. Gottleib and J. Craig Jenkins. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2007. New York Times. “The Atrocity Findings: „The Historic Facts Must Be Recognized.‟” Feb. 26, 1999. North American Congress on Latin America archive of Latin America, Guatemala. Rutgers University Microfilm Collection. Oglesby, Elizabeth. “Educating Citizens in Postwar Guatemala: Historical Memory, Genocide, and the Culture of Peace.” Truth Commissions: State Terror, History, and Memory. Edited by Greg Grandin, 77-98. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. Recovery of Historical Memory Project of the Archdiocese of Guatemala. Guatemala, Never Again! Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1999. Sanford, Victoria. Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Schirmer, Jennifer. The Guatemalan Military Project: A Violence Called Democracy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998. Sigel, Newton Thomas and Yates, Pamela. When The Mountains Tremble, 20th Anniversary Special ed. DVD, New Video Group, 2004. Skylight Pictures, 1986. Smith, Carol A., ed. Guatemalan Indians and the State: 1540 to 1988. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. Stoll, David. Rigoberta Menchú and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans. Boulder: Westview Press, 1999. Tiede, Tom. 1981. “El descontento de los indios guatemaltecos.” El Universal. July 16. 6. Warren, Kay. Indigenous Movements and Their Critics: Pan-Mayan Activism in Guatemala. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998. Wilkinson, Daniel. Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Wilson, Richard. “Machine Guns and Mountain Spirits: The Cultural Effects of State Repression among the Q‟eqchi‟ of Guatemala.” Critique of Anthropology, vol. 11, no. 1. (1991): 33- 61. Zur, Judith. Violent Memories: Mayan War Widows in Guatemala. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. 1 Chapter One Introduction The Guatemalan Civil War began with a coup against reformist President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in June 1954. It was a four-decade long struggle between a U.S.-supported military dictatorship and the occasionally armed activists who wanted an end to the resulting military government. In the mountainous countryside, guerrilla organizations sought protection and support from the Mayan people living in the Quiché and Ixil regions, prompting the Guatemalan army to attack Mayan villages as a way to weaken the guerrillas‘ power. However, not all of Guatemala‘s diverse indigenous people participated in the conflict, sparking an international discussion in the media and among academics regarding their true intentions and experiences, a debate which continues today. Although the war, one of the longest in the hemisphere, officially ended in 1996, this thesis focuses on an eleven year period between 1972 (the year when several of the most prominent guerrilla organizations began recruiting indigenous people) and August 1983, when the presidency of José Efraín Ríos Montt ended. Because of their specific policies targeting the indigenous population, the presidencies of Ríos Montt and his predecessor, Fernando Romeo Lucas García, have been most important in my work. During the years of these two presidencies especially, the Guatemalan military crossed the line of fighting indigenous people as part of any kind of conventional counterinsurgency strategy and began attacking them as ―indios,‖ using their culture against them and destroying land, food, and clothing which were so closely associated with traditional Mayan identity. I do not seek to prove that indigenous people resisted state oppression, as this has already been established through testimonies and is well documented. The exact number of indigenous collaborators in resistance movements is unclear, 2 but some estimates place the total at approximately 250,000.1 What I hope to demonstrate is that despite statements from Guatemalan government representatives, right-leaning North American scholars, and even certain indigenous allies such as the Catholic Church (who often take credit for indigenous involvement in political movements), the Mayan people who participated in resistance efforts did so in order to represent their own interests, not simply to follow the lead of one group or another. They were persecuted as indígenas, and fought back as indígenas. The Commission for Historical Clarification (or CEH, the Comisión de Esclarecimiento Histórico), Guatemala‘s independent Truth Commission, with Christian Tomuschat as its head coordinator, received independent funding and U.N. supervision to carry out its investigation from 1997 to 1999.2 The CEH compiled testimonies on human rights abuses and acts of violence that occurred during Guatemala‘s forty year Civil War. According to this report, there were an estimated 200,000 total deaths and disappearances, 83% of whom were people of Mayan descent and 93% of which is attributable to the Guatemalan military and its associated counterinsurgent groups.3 During the years of heightened violence (1978-1985), ―military operations were concentrated in Quiché, Huehuetenango, Chimaltenango, Alta and Baja Verapaz, the south coast and the capital.‖4 Beyond actual death tolls, the war had a massive affect on population change due to the estimated 500,000 to 1.5 million refugees and internally displaced people.5 There were four prominent guerrilla organizations operating in Guatemala