ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: ROGER MAIS’S PROTEST NOVELS: A REVOLT AND SELF-AFFIRMATION MANDATE FOR MARGINALIZED BLACKS Denise A. Rose, Doctor of Philosophy, December 2019 Dissertation Chaired by: Karl Henzy, Ph.D. Department of English and Language Arts The problem of this study was to examine how Black marginalized individuals in the Caribbean use hybrid cultural practices—religion, family life, and creative arts—to protest societal dictates and simultaneously affirm their identity. Specifically, the marginalized use hybrid practices to cope with and simultaneously challenge the status quo that relates to their social, economic, and political climate. Mais adjoins his artistic sensibilities and skills to his writing, illustrating his intertwined overt and covert agenda of passive aggression—to effect desired change. Thus, in seeking to understand the mentality of the downtrodden population in Jamaica and their coping mechanisms, the researcher evaluated the problem identified in this study by critically examining Mais’s three multi-faceted novels: The Hills Were Joyful Together (1953), Brother Man (1954), and Black Lightning (1955). Mais’s three novels illustrate overlapping reasons why deviating from traditional religious practices, family structures, and creative arts necessitate the fundamental changes that the marginalized, in their seeming defenseless and naïve state, demands. Mais unmistakably demeaned societal values through the subtlety of his craft, which was predominantly apparent in this discourse. To establish the premise for this exposition, the researcher delved into historical facts that pre-date Mais’s affirmation and protest mechanisms. Additionally, the researcher employed theoretical works on colonialism, postcolonialism, cultural, socio-economic, and religious theories to advance the scope of the discussion. Although Mais’s novels evidence postcolonial readings, a lingering colonial mode pervades, particularly illustrated through the projection of the social institution of marriage as the standard for decent family decorum and traditional religious practices as the preferred or acceptable norm. Likewise, Mais examines Jamaican cultural norms in the form of creative arts—traditional dances, folk music, and crafts—which were derived from African and other historical experiences that the indigent used as coping and revolting tools. Mais’s novels also discuss the correlation between poverty and rebellion. Notable is that these selected novels structurally raise a thorough awareness of the strategies that poor people use to protest the system and simultaneously affirm themselves. In addition, Mais uniquely magnifies and celebrates his characters, despite the eventualities that he realistically inserts into their everyday existence, while he deliberately undermines any possibility of dignifying the actions or inactions of the colonizers and their oppressive “Babylon” system. ROGER MAIS’S PROTEST NOVELS: A REVOLT AND SELF- AFFIRMATION MANDATE FOR MARGINALIZED BLACKS by Denise A. Rose A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy MORGAN STATE UNIVERSITY December 2019 ROGER MAIS’S PROTEST NOVELS: A REVOLT AND SELF- AFFIRMATION MANDATE FOR MARGINALIZED BLACKS by Denise A. Rose has been approved August 2019 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE APPROVAL: ________________________, Chair Karl Henzy, Ph.D. ___________________________ Leiza Brown, Ph.D. ___________________________ M’bare N’gom, Ph.D. ii DEDICATION I would be remiss not to first thank the Omnipotent for faithfully navigating my endeavors, and it is because of the aspects of my life that I have come to recognize as inexplicable, even with recognizing and experiencing a Supreme Deity, that I wholeheartedly dedicate this exposition to honor life. Specifically, I elect to recount the life that Saint Merdina Rose-Hyde, a woman extraordinaire, led. She exhibited strength of character, respect for humanity, allegiance to God, and unwavering love for her children, especially me–we were best friends, and what an honor to be the recipient of her strength, wisdom, courage, and faith! Having experienced life in different proportions with her, the level of knowledge, the process of adaptation, the effect of growth, and the application of parity is stounding. The didactic experiences, though often disconcerting, necessitated the procuring of the life that she wanted me to have—the life that I have only just began to live. undoubtedly, my mother—my friend is invaluable to the structured, predestined process of my timely, humble, purposeful, and powerful evolution! iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. Karl Henzy, by example, taught me the value of perseverance; this manuscript would not have been possible without his constant encouragement and genuine help. In addition, Dr. M’bare N’gom has unceasingly supported my effort; I am sincerely thankful for his expert advice. I cannot adequately express how helpful Dr. Leiza Brown has been; she offered valuable insights. These three individuals, my committee members, have been unwavering in their support and encouragement. I particularly thank my siblings: Sylvia, Danny, George, and Wayne (Dr. Rose) for constantly affirming me throughout the process. I equally express sincere gratitude to my extended family and friends; by attitudinal request, they took on the role of supporting me From a distance. I specially thank Dr. Denise Jarrett for championing my cause; she assumed the role of friend and mother. I also thank Claudia Brooks for playing a major supportive role; Desrene Charles-Wright provided constant affirmation, and Angela Jarrett equally encouraged me throughout the process. In addition, I thank Dr. N. Eseonu-Ewoh, Dr. K. Olumba, and Dr. Maxine Clark for always supporting and inspiring me. Their genuine display of care is worthy of admiration and emulation. Likewise, I thank Dr. Leonie Dennis who, more than thirty years ago, asked me to write the prologue to playwright Dalilah Shaw’s play, My Father’s Child. Unknowingly, Dr. Dennis helped to intensify my trajectory—creative sensibilities. Finally and most importantly, in light of the didactic, I must emphasize that persistence is significant to achieving optimal scholastic aptitude. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: The Problem and the Solution 1 Statement of the Problem 1 Overview and Need for the Project 15 Critical Framework and Methodology 24 Biographies 25 Newspapers and Magazines 27 Critical Works on the Author 30 A Perspective on Colonialism and Postcolonialism 35 Delimitation and Project Outline 37 Chapter 2: The Efficacy of Religion 40 Religion: An Overview 40 Religion in Jamaica 40 Religion as Resistance in Jamaica 43 The Rise of Rastafarianism in Jamaica 46 Rastafarianism, Protest, and Brother Man 52 Obeah as Protest in Brother Man 62 Religious Declaration in Black Lightening 64 Chapter Summary 67 Chapter 3: The Dynamics of Family 69 Family: An Overview 69 The Structure of the Marginalized Jamaican Family 70 v An Overview of the Marginalized Family in Jamaica 72 Marginalized Family Patterns in Jamaica in the 1950s-Present 74 Marginalized Tenement Yard Families: The Hills and Brother Man 78 The Hills: Constructing and Deconstructing Families in Protest 80 Brother Man: Constructing and Deconstructing Families in Protest 99 Black Families in Poor Rural Spaces in Black Lightning 112 Black Lightning: Constructing and Deconstructing Families in Protest 113 Chapter Summary 123 Chapter 4: The Arts as an Emancipatory and Revolutionary Mechanism 126 The Arts: An Overview 126 The Affective and Effective Role of Music as Revolutionary 126 Jamaican Music as an Innovative Stratagem 127 Revolutionary Artistic Sounds 128 Sounds of Protests 130 Revolting Through Chorus and Singing 134 The Accordion 143 Art for Resistance, Art for Economic Gain 145 Dressmaking 148 Shoemaking 150 Blacksmith and Sculpture 153 Chapter Summary 160 vi Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions 162 Works Cited 166 vii Chapter 1: The Problem and the Solution Statement of the Problem The problem of this study is to examine how Black marginalized individuals in the Caribbean use hybrid cultural practices—religion, family life, and creative arts—to protest societal dictates and at the same time assert their identity; these hybrid practices are used to challenge and undermine colonial sanctions that encroach their social, economic, and political conditions. In an effort to determine and understand the mentality of the downtrodden population in Jamaica and their coping mechanisms, the writer will evaluate the problem identified in this study by critically examining Mais’s three multi-faceted novels: The Hills Were Joyful Together (1953), Brother Man (1954), and Black Lightning (1955). Before Mais’s novelized insights take precedence, lucidity on the hybridity of religion, family life, and creative arts becomes important. Thus, in raising an argument to understand the intensity and propensity of the use of religion as a combative force, Rastafarianism, a religion that has gained momentum, becomes imperative. The article, “Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread of a Jamaican Socioreligious Movement Among the Youth of West Africa,” by Neil J. Savishinsky offers a thought-provoking perspective: If Rastafarianism functions as an ideological corrective to the suffering, exploitation and alienation experienced by young people of color the world over, it holds an especially heightened resonance and appeal for 1 Africans and those of African descent. And while the messages expounded