Kouklia – Palepaphos 1 The archaeological finds from the village of Kouklia, 16 kilometers southwest of Paphos, date from various periods and attest to a continuous settlement spanning almost five thousand years, from the Late Chalcolithic period (ca 2800 BC) to the present time. The area was the location of ancient Palepaphos, site of a very important sanctuary of Aphrodite, which has been added to UNESCO’s Cultural Heritage List. Let us first travel back through the history of Palepaphos, focusing on the main portable finds that have come to light, and then allow our mind’s eye to roam through the site. The city of Paphos was the seat of the ancient Cypriot kingdom until the 4th century BC, when Cyprus came under the Ptolemies of Egypt and the administrative center was relocated to Nea Paphos, situated in the area of the modern city. The kingdom covered a substantial territory in western Cyprus, extending perhaps from the Akamas peninsula to the hills before Pissouri and sharing borders with the kingdoms of Kourion to the east and of Marion to the north. Since the Late Bronze Age Paphos had become the urban and administrative centre of that area. The alluvial soil was ideal for the cultivation of grains which contributed greatly to the economic development, as did the fact that the sanctuary of goddess Aphrodite had turned Palepaphos into a major religious centre for centuries. In his Theogony, Hesiod says that the goddess rose from the foam of the sea, a few kilometers southwest of Palepaphos, the present-day village of Kouklia. The same information is transmitted by the 1st century AD Spain-born Roman geographer Pomponius Mela. Kings of the city inherited the title of the goddess’s high priest, a function that carried great influence on the island. This is attested by ancient inscriptions referring to the “King of Paphos and Priest of Anassa”, (Anassa –meaning lady or queen– was the traditional cult title of the Paphian Aphrodite). The systematic archaeological excavations that began at the end of the 19th century have revealed evidence that Paphos has a unique and uninterrupted 2 history which started in the Chalcolithic period (third millennium BC) and continues to date. Indeed the archaeological finds prove that the worship of the goddess at the Sanctuary continued from 1200 BC through the 4th century A.D. There is ample evidence of the worship of an Oriental deity, the “Great Goddess” of fertility, combining different elements, viz. she was initially associated with Astarte and then, subsequent to the arrival of Achaeans from Greece to the island, she was equated with Aphrodite. The fact that the worship of the goddess in the same site dates back to the Chalcolithic period and continues to the end of the 4th century makes the Palepaphos sanctuary the longest-lasting in the religious tradition of Cyprus. Several sites have yielded numerous Chalcolithic finds, such as tools and pottery shards. Significant votive objects have also been found in the area around the Sanctuary, in the Evreti and Asprogi cemeteries in the eastern section of the ancient city. Among those finds are picrolite amulets, an unusual bone amulet representing a male form, as well as a fragment of a votive figurine with a rounded head and muscular arms, similar to the votive figurines found in Khirokitia, Sotira and Erimi. The absence of any finds from the Early Bronze Age leads to the conclusion that there was no human habitation in the area during that period. However, there was certainly human presence there in the Middle Bronze Age (1900– 1650 BC), as evidenced by sparse vessels found in graves, mainly White- Painted clay pots, such as the bird-like askos now in the UK Ashmolean Museum. The multitude of finds dating from the Late Bronze Age (1650–1050 BC) attests to the intense human activity in the area: impressive clay prohoi, a plaque from an ivory box, an ivory mirror handle. Golden jewellery bears witness to the fact that Palepaphos was one of the biggest economic and art centres of the island, a city with a thriving craft industry and multifaceted relationships with both the West and the East, as corroborated by the wide spectrum of finds. Almost no traces of habitation from that period have come to light, perhaps because the area was densely populated during the Archaic and Classical 3 times. However, wells and pits filled with storage jars attest to the existence of local workshops producing pottery, fine jewellery and ivory carvings, as well as of copper smelting; there were even iron tools, which first appeared towards the end of the 12th century BC. Imported items found in the area constitute evidence of trade relations with the East, especially Greater Syria and Egypt. The first monumental sacred temenos was erected in the area around 1200 BC, along the standards of Near East open-air sanctuaries. This period is marked by the arrival of the first Achaeans from Greece in Palepaphos, at the time of the great migrations. According to Pausanias, the temple of Aphrodite was built by Arcadian King Agapinor of Tegea, who was caught in a storm on his return from Troy and his ship was driven to the shores of Cyprus. Another legend attributes the erection of the sanctuary to Cypriot king Cinyras, father of Adonis, who was renowned for his wealth. Travelling on through time, we see that during the transition to the Iron Age the city of Palepaphos presents some peculiar features. Whereas other cities in Cyprus are utterly destroyed and relocated, as was the case of Enkomi- Salamis, Palepaphos continues to be uninterruptedly inhabited and retains its privileged position overlooking the coastal plain, as corroborated by funerary finds of the Geometric period through the Classical period (1050–325 BC). Eteandros was the first historically recorded king of Palepaphos, the biggest urban centre in southwest Cyprus. His name appears with those of other vassal kings in Cyprus on the inscription of the Assyrian King Esarhaddon in 673/2 BC. As evidenced by 5th and 4th century coins, the same name was popular with the Cinyrads dynasty. In addition to political power, Paphian kings also held the religious capacity of Aphrodite’s high priests. On inscriptions in the Cypriot syllabary, they are referred to as “King of Paphos and Priest of Anassa”. Paphos and other cities in Cyprus rose against the Persian rule during the Ionian Revolt (499-4 BC), a historical fact substantiated by archaeologists. The uprising failed and the island was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus also makes a succinct reference to the assault, whereas other ancient writers 4 describe Paphian kings of that era from the perspective of the classical stereotype of Eastern luxury, as indulging in luxurious living and fanfare. Nikokles, the last king, founded the city and port of Nea Paphos and established it as the new capital ca 320 BC. In the war among the successors, he sided with Ptolemy, however when the rule of the Ptolemies was finally established on the island in 284 BC, all kingdoms were dismantled and Cyprus became a province of the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. After the founding of Nea Paphos, the old city was renamed Palepaphos. It was no longer the regional centre of southwest Cyprus, but it assumed the character of a sacred city. The sanctuary was rebuilt during the Roman period and many private residences were erected in the area, as attested by the discovery of the “House of Leda”. Furthermore, the large number of amphora handles with impressed decoration found scattered all over the ancient city bears witness to the uninterrupted trade relationships with the Greek world. The renown and magnificence of the Sanctuary of Paphos remained undiminished through time. Even in the 1st century AD, geographer Pomponius Mela includes Palepaphos in the three major cities of Cyprus, together with Salamis and Nea Paphos. During the Roman period there is intense building activity in the area. The area to the west and south of modern Kouklia is full of Roman ruins which have not yet been systematically studied. To the west of the Sanctuary, a peristyle house has been partly excavated, whilst rescue excavations have brought to light several private Roman residences preserving mosaic floors in their interiors. Among those mosaics is the impressive representation of Leda and the Swan, on display at the Kouklia museum. It is evident therefore that Palepaphos retained its aura and considerable wealth through the Late Roman period. This was largely due to the Sanctuary of Paphian Aphrodite, a renowned religious centre of the Roman world attracting visitors from the whole empire. During religious festivals, worshippers wreathed with myrtle took part in ritual processions starting from the port of Nea Paphos and terminating at the Palepaphos temple with the 5 accompaniment of music. Roman emperors, up to and including Septimius Severus, were patrons of the Sanctuary. Titus was very impressed by what he saw when, before being proclaimed emperor he visited Palepaphos in 69 AD, on his way to Syria. The Sanctuary of Aphrodite was rebuilt in late 1st or early 2nd century AD. The new Roman complex comprised edifices dating from various periods, without however negating the basic character of the court sanctuary. The large-scale medieval interventions in the area do not allow us to estimate with any accuracy when the Sanctuary was destroyed or to what extent the devastating earthquakes that hit Nea Paphos and Kourion contributed to its decline. The last time the Sanctuary of Paphos was mentioned in a written record was in the 4th century AD. In the middle of that century, the cult of Aphrodite was still the target of criticism by Christian writers such as Julius Firmicus Maternus (ca 345-350 AD).