SWIMMING AGAINST THE TIDE: TRACING AND LOCATING CHINESE LEFTISM ONLINE Andy Yinan Hu B.A., Simon Fraser University, 2004 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the School of Communication O Andy Yinan Hu 2006 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2006 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL NAME: Yinan Andy Hu DEGREE: TITLE: SWIMMING AGAINST THE TIDE: TRACING AND LOCATING CHINESE LEFTISM ONLINE EXAMINING COMMITTEE: CHAIR: Prof. Alison Beale Prof. Yuezhi Zhao Senior Supervisor Associate Professor, School of Communication Prof. Pat Howard Supervisor Associate Professor, School of Communication Prof. TimothyCheek Examiner Professor, Centre for Chinese Research, UBC Date: SIMON FRASER UNIWR~~brary DECLARATION OF PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENCE The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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The original Partial Copyright Licence attesting to these terms, and signed by this author, may be found in the original bound copy of this work, retained in the Simon Fraser University Archive. Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Summer 2006 SIMON FRASER UNWERS~TY~ibra ry STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a) Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal Care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-investigator, in a research project approved in advance, (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Off ice of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Bennett Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada Summer 2006 Abstract This thesis explores the resurgence of Chinese leftism online, its historical rationale, characteristics, scopes of influence, space for survival, contributions and limitations, and prospective implications. Through documentary analysis, participant observation and interviews, it identifies, describes and analyzes Chinese leftism's contradictions and shifting characters since 1976, during which capitalist restoration and rightwing market authoritarianism have accelerated economic reforms, diversified social contentions and complicated the leftist heritage of the postrevolutionary state. Continual resistance from an increasingly united front of leftists at elite and popular levels has elevated and renewed China's suppressed ideological debates online, notably since 2003. Their rapid growth and increasing support notwithstanding, online leftists7 involvement in cybersphere alone does not fully unlock much emancipatory potential. Yet their persistence indicates the intensity of struggles within the allegedly socialist country whose government has attempted to wave goodbye to its revolutionary legacy and support of the counter-bourgeois publics that made its governance possible. Keywords: leftism, neoliberalism, Internet, history, China For my admirable Grandparents, the most complete human beings I have known; for the convictions that led the young them to trek hundreds of miles to Yan'an in November 1937; and for the 67 years they had since spent together sharing those convictions. Beginning and end are like a circle. Growth and decay are the succession of transformations. Where there is end there is the beginning. The Chuang-tzu Acknowledgements I have too many debts, and I hope that at least some of them are repayable. I thank everyone who contributed to the completion of this thesis, whose faults are mine alone. All my committee members deserve deep respect and appreciation. My utmost gratitude goes to Dr. Yuezhi Zhao. Without her boundless guidance, inspirations, encouragement and, dare I say, charisma, I would not have been in graduate school. Nor would I be able to work on this topic with so much confidence and passion. Her contributions to this thesis are enormous, and I have to thank her for putting up with me. I am seriously indebted to Dr. Pat Howard. Her writings inspired me as a student and as a person, and so did her her creative style of teaching as well as her career and life experiences, to which I look up. Her efforts in editing and providing suggestions for this thesis are beyond my expectations. I could not have asked more from her. My thanks also go to Dr. Timothy Cheek, whose works and attitude set the standard. His challenging questions and constructive suggestions compelled me to rethink many of my implicit assumptions throughout this thesis. Special thanks to Dr. Alison Beale for being my defence chair and for kindly offering her advice. At the School of Communication, I thank Neena Shahani, Monique Cloutier and Lucie Menkveld for their assistance, support and patience. My undying appreciation to my friends at Simon Fraser University, including Abu Bhuiyan, Arthur Martins-Aginam, Guoxin Xing, Gill Jin, Amy Li, and JJ. I am indebted to Zhang Xiaobo, a true hero and a caring comrade, for the help and knowledge he always provided and shared. Many thanks to my lads John, R and Sonny for lending their financial support. Words cannot express my gratitude to those unnamed individuals who took the time to speak with me about their work. BDBB's devotion and tolerance as well as Blue's care and support saved my life. I owe my family more than I am able to know. Thank you, Mom and Dad, for your love. Thank you, waigong, gugu, zuzu, nainai, and dajiu, for giving me a very memorable childhood. Sadly, the five of you passed away during my years in Canada. I dream of you often, and will owe you always. Finally, I owe my younger self a product, my older self a record and my present self an inspiration before I advance once again to the mythical university of lulin. May this thesis be at least one of them. vii contents Approval .......................................................................................................................................... ii ... Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ill Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... iv Quotation ......................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... vi ... Contents ........................................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures and Tables ............................................................................................................... ix Preface .............................................................................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................5 Three decades later ........................................................................................................................ 10 1 The Background: Resurgence of Chinese Leftism Since 1976............................................. 25 A unified leftism? .......................................................................................................................... 26 "Things turn into their opposites when reaching the extreme" .............................................. 29 Transitions and war: 1976-79 ........................................................................................... 31 Transformations. struggles