Lithic scatters and landscape: the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Early Bronze Age inhabitation of the lower Exe valley, Devon Volume 1 of 2 by Olaf Bayer A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire November 2011 Student Declaration Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards *I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution Material submitted for another award *I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Signature of Candidate Type of Award Doctor of Philosophy School Forensic and Investigative Sciences i Abstract This thesis examines the inhabitation of the lower Exe valley, between the Mesolithic and the Early Bronze Age through the evidence of a series of surface lithic scatters. Research draws on recent confident approaches to surface lithic scatters which view them as key data for understanding the inhabitation of prehistoric landscapes. Theoretically it draws on the dwelling perspective and proposes that both the contents of lithic scatters (the stone tools and debitage of which they are composed), and their contexts (the locations in which they are found) are inseparable parts of the same whole, and are implicated in the processes through which prehistoric populations came to understood and create their worlds. Research focuses on a small study area centred on the lower Exe valley, Devon. It is one of the most significant prehistoric landscapes in lowland southwest Britain and includes a large surface lithic collection spanning the Mesolithic to the Early Bronze Age. It also contains evidence for a number of contemporary monuments. Several methodologies are applied to the contents and contexts of the study area’s lithic assemblages. Methodologies utilised include lithic analysis, landscape phenomenology, LIDAR and vertical aerial photography, extensive geophysical survey and targeted excavation. Four themes are explored in relation to the study area’s archaeological record: • The character and composition of inhabitation • The temporality of inhabitation • Biographies of place • Scales of mobility and contact Results indicate the valley floor and its immediate western edge as a particular focus of activity during all periods. Against the background of increasing intensity and extent of inhabitation between the Mesolithic and Early Bronze Age, the repeated occupation of persistent places is noted. Repeated occupation of these locales is seen as key to the development of biographies of place which in turn act as anchors for subsequent acts of inhabitation and monument building. This thesis combines the analysis and interpretation of previously unpublished surface lithic assemblages, with the results of new archaeological fieldwork. At a regional level it has enhanced understanding of the prehistory of lowland Devon. In a wider context it offers a new theoretical and methodological approach to studying surface lithic scatters, and contributes to on going debates in landscape archaeology. ii Contents Chapter Page Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Lithic scatters 1 1.2 Settlement, inhabitation, occupation, residence, 1 dwelling? 1.3 The dwelling perspective 2 1.4 The study area 2 1.5 Research questions 3 1.6 Thesis structure 3 1.7 A note on radiocarbon dates 4 Chapter Two: Archaeology, landscape and dwelling 5 2.1 Processual landscape archaeology 5 2.2 Post-processual landscape archaeology 6 2.2.1 Landscape phenomenology 7 2.2.2 Critiquing landscape phenomenology 8 2.2.3 The dwelling perspective 14 2.2.4 Taskscape 16 2.2.5 Dwelling, taskscape, phenomenology and landscape 17 archaeology 2.3 Conclusion: dwelling and lithic scatters 20 Chapter Three: Prehistoric Devon, a regional context 21 3.1 Physical context 21 3.1.1 Topography, geology and climate 21 iii 3.1.2 Archaeological visibility 24 3.2 Mesolithic Devon 27 3.2.1 Mesolithic sea-level, environment, and subsistence 27 3.2.2 Mesolithic archaeology 30 Caves 30 Coastal sites 32 Excavated scatters 32 Surface scatters 34 Material culture 37 3.3 Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Devon 38 3.3.1 Neolithic sea-level, environment, and subsistence 38 3.3.2 Neolithic and Early Bronze Age monuments 40 Early Neolithic enclosures 40 Early Neolithic funerary monuments 44 Later Neolithic monuments 48 Early Bronze Age funerary monuments 52 3.3.3 Neolithic and Early Bronze Age occupation 59 Pits and unenclosed sites 59 Lithic scatters 61 Field systems 63 3.3.4 Neolithic and Early Bronze Age material culture 63 Axes 63 Early Neolithic ceramics 64 Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age ceramics 64 Early Bronze Age metal work 65 3.4 Conclusion 65 iv Chapter Four: The lower Exe valley 67 4.1 The lower Exe valley 67 4.1.1 Geology, topography and landuse 68 4.1.2 History of archaeological research 68 4.1.3 Current state of archaeological knowledge 77 Mesolithic 77 Neolithic 77 Early Bronze Age 83 4.1.4 Implications for working in the study area 83 4.2 The John Uglow collection 85 4.2.1 History of the collection 85 4.2.2 Working with the collection: opportunities and 87 constraints Different collection methodologies 88 Non-systematic collection 88 Systematic collection 90 Coverage of the collection 93 Selective collection/retention of artefacts 94 4.2.3 Implications for studying the collection 95 4.3 Conclusion 95 Chapter Five: Stone tools and lithic scatters 97 5.1 A history of lithic analysis 97 5.1.1 Origins 97 5.1.2 Taxonomy and typology 98 5.1.3 Culture history 98 Culture history and lithic scatters 99 v Hurst Fen and Windmill Hill 100 5.1.4 Processualism 101 Processualism and lithic scatters 105 5.1.5 Post processualism 107 Post processualism and lithic scatters 109 5.1.6 Summary 110 5.2 Lithic analysis 110 5.2.1 Typological analysis 110 5.2.2 Raw material analysis 111 5.2.3 Metric analysis 114 5.2.4 Reduction sequence and refitting analysis 115 5.2.5 Technological analyses 117 5.2.6 Use-wear analysis 117 5.2.7 Summary 118 5.3 Conclusion 119 Chapter Six: Methodology 120 6.1 Lithic analysis 120 6.1.1 Level one lithic analysis 120 6.1.2 Level two lithic analysis 122 Spatial analysis 124 Quantitative analysis 124 Typological analysis 127 Raw material analysis 128 Condition analysis (burning) 130 Metric/chronometric analysis 130 Reduction sequence analysis 134 vi Technological analysis 137 Data collection, data processing and interpretation 137 6.2 Landscape analysis 138 6.2.1 Landscape phenomenology 138 6.2.2 Vertical aerial photography and LIDAR 140 6.3 Archaeological investigation 141 6.3.1 Gradiometer survey 142 6.3.2 Excavation 143 6.4 Conclusion 144 Chapter Seven: New archaeological fieldwork-investigating 145 the monumental contexts of lithic scatters 7.1 Area A: The cursus and associated monuments 145 7.1.1 Area A: Existing state of knowledge 147 7.1.2 Area A: New fieldwork 150 Gradiometer survey 150 7.1.3 Area A: Development of a monument complex 155 7.2 Area B: The large enclosure and associated 155 monuments 7.2.1 Area B: Existing state of knowledge 156 7.2.2 Area B: New fieldwork 161 Gradiometer survey 161 Excavation 165 7.2.3 Area B: summary of results 169 7.2.4 Development of a monument complex 171 7.3 Conclusion 172 vii Chapter Eight: Lithic analysis – investigating the contents of 173 lithic scatters 8.1 Distribution of lithic finds and spatial analysis 173 8.1.1 Archaeological distributions or distributions of 176 archaeologists 8.1.2 Positive information 177 8.1.3 Negative information (the blank areas) 177 8.2 Typological analysis 180 8.2.1 Modern/intrusive material 181 8.2.2 Unmodified debitage 181 Debitage chronology 182 Blade scars/flake scars 183 Blades, flakes and cores 183 8.2.3 Retouched/utilised tools 185 Utilised blades and flakes 189 Scrapers 190 Awls/borers/points 190 Fabricators 191 Burins/gravers 191 Microdenticulates 191 Denticulates 191 8.2.3 Chronologically diagnostic artefacts 192 Microliths 192 Microburins 193 Axes (pick) 193 Axes (flaked) 194 Arrowheads (leaf-shaped) 194 viii Serrated blades 194 Polished axe fragments and flakes 195 Arrowheads (oblique) 195 Arrowheads (transverse) 195 Arrowheads (triangular) 196 Arrowheads (barbed and tanged) 196 Knives (plano-convex) 196 Scrapers (thumbnail) 196 8.2.4 Chronology of inhabitation 209 8.3 Raw materials 215 8.3.1 Types of raw material 215 8.3.2 Raw material distribution 219 8.3.3 Raw materials and chronology 220 8.3.4 Raw material colour 223 8.3.5 Distribution of raw material by colour 225 8.3.6 Use of raw material by colour 225 8.3.7 Raw material by artefact type 226 8.3.8 Raw material sources 226 Nodular flint 227 Pebble flint 230 Greensand Chert 230 Haldon flint/chert 232 Portland Chert 233 Other raw materials 233 8.4 Reduction sequence 234 8.4.1 Nodular flint and Greensand Chert reduction 235 sequence ix 8.4.2 Pebble flint reduction sequence 238 8.4.3 Portland Chert reduction sequence 239 8.4.4 Haldon chert/flint reduction sequence 239 8.5 Burning 240 8.6 Conclusion 241 Mesolithic 241 Early Neolithic 242 Late Neolithic 243 Early Bronze Age 243 Chapter Nine: Landscape, lithics and monuments – 245 investigating the contexts of lithic scatters 9.1 Zone based lithic analysis 247 9.1.1 Zone One: The Raddon Ridge 247 9.1.2 Zone Two: The Western Hinterland 249 9.1.3 Zone Three: Overlooking the Exe valley 252 Zone Three A: Overlooking the Exe valley (south) 253