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C:\Documents and Settings\lproctor\Local SettingsYTemporary Internet Files\OLK8\Copyright - thesis (2).doc Rethinking National Identities: Representations of the Mapuche and Dominant Discourses of Nationhood in Twentieth-Century Chile Joanna Crow A thesis submitted to the University of London, in candidacy for the Doctor of Philosophy from the Department of History, University College London UMI Number: U592723 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U592723 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT Existing scholarship has tended to exclude Chile from studies of indigenismo in Latin America, on the basis that it has not experienced the same history of ethnic conflict as other countries in the region. My doctoral thesis challenges this consensus, highlighting various discursive manifestations of such a conflict in twentieth-century Chile, and investigating the successive attempts of intellectuals and state institutions to redefine the place of indigenous cultures within Chilean nationhood. Located within the theoretical study of nationalism and national identity the thesis explores the way in which dominant images of “Chilean-ness” and “Mapuche-ness” have changed during the twentieth century, particularly since the 1960s. It illustrates how divergent identity discourses competed with one another, underlining both the presence of indigenista narratives and the way in which these have been incorporated into, but often subverted by, dominant representations of chilenidad. Examining a wide range of materials linked to key sites of nation building in Chile - historiography, education, museums and literature - it seeks to demonstrate the fluid nature of both Mapuche and Chilean identity discourses. My thesis traces the emergence of a minority (Mapuche) nationalism that has sought to counter and invalidate official state nationalism. However, it also aims to illustrate the limitations of the standard interpretations of ethnic politics in the country, which either portray the Mapuche as a people fighting heroically against state repression, or reduce their struggle to nostalgic idealism and claim as inevitable the assimilation of Mapuche culture into “Chilean-ness”. Throughout the twentieth century the Mapuche have been actively engaged with the state, often opposing its ideological underpinnings, but also negotiating with them. Indeed, many Mapuche have worked as part of the state apparatus, trying to carve out a place for their people within rather than outside national imaginings. The Chilean experience thereby provides a largely unexplored case study of the conflictive process of reconstructing ethnic and national identities, within a framework of debates about the roles of history, memory and culture in nation-building. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements page 6 List o f figures 1 List o f maps 8 Glossary o f terms 9 Introduction: Contested Meanings of Nation in Twentieth-Century Chile 10 Exploring key terms 18 Theories o f nationalism and national identity 21 Assessing the literature on Chilean nationalism 22 Revising the role o f the Mapuche in the Chilean nation 28 Current political context 34 Sites o f mediation 36 Periodisation 37 Organisation and outline o f thesis 38 Chapter One: Rewriting the National Narrative: Historiographical Debates in Twentieth-Century Chile 41 Sergio Villalobos (1930 -) and contested discourses o f mestizaje 47 Jaime Eyzaguirre (1908 -1968) and conservative hispanismo 52 Nicolas Palacios (1854 -1911): Decadentismo and ethnic versions o f Chilean-ness 58 Alejandro Lipschutz (1883 -1980): A Marxist re-reading o f Chilean history 68 Rolf Foerster (1952 -) and anthropology’s contribution to alternative historical narratives 11 Pascual Coha (-1927) and the Chilean state’s occupation ofAraucania 84 Conclusion 92 3 Chapter Two: Remembering the Past through the Chilean Education System: A Space for Intercultural Dialogue? 95 Renaming syllabuses, contextualising changes 101 Europe and Latin America in the history curriculum 103 Discourses o f mestizaje 111 The occupation o f Araucania (1860s-1880s) 124 Debating intercultural reform in schools 128 The Popular Unity (1970-1973) 129 Intercultural education policies under the military regime (1973-1990) 134 Educacion Intercultural Bilingue since re-democratisation 140 Conclusion 148 Chapter Three: Debating Pluralism in Chilean Museums 150 El Museo Historico Nacional 154 El Museo Nacional de Historia Natural 166 El Museo Regional de la Araucania 172 El Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino 111 El Museo Mapuche de Canete 180 An intercultural dialogue? 191 Conclusion 196 Chapter Four: Mapuche Poetry: Renegotiating Ethnic, National and Global Identities 198 Assessing the criticial literature 200 Sebastian Queupul 203 Elicura Chihuailaf and Leonel Lienlaf 211 Resistance and confrontation 216 Orality versus the written word 221 Spanish versus Mapuzungun 226 The urban experience 230 The construction o f utopias 236 A lugar de encuentro? 238 A limited encuentro? 243 Conclusion 245 4 Conclusion: Being Seen but not Heard: The “Mapuche Question” in a Broader Context 247 Contestation and debate 248 Mapuche participation in identity debates 250 The role o f the state 252 Indigenismo 256 Writing Chile back into Latin America 259 Chilean and Mapuche identities in the twenty-first century 264 Appendix 269 A Note on Sources 273 Bibliography 275 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD thesis could not have been completed without the encouragement and support of many people. First and foremost I would like to thank Dr Nicola Miller for her challenging questions, helpful guidance and unwavering support throughout this whole project. I am deeply indebted to her for all she has done. I am also very grateful to Dr Chris Abel for his insightful comments and suggestions over the last four years. I would also like to thank Dr Alan Angell for providing me with many useful contacts in Chile before my first research trip to the country in 2003. That trip was made possible with the funding provided by the UCL Graduate School and the UCL History Department, and I greatly appreciate their assistance. There are so many people in Chile who helped to make my stay there both a very fruitful and enjoyable one. I am unable to mention them all here, but I would like to say a special thanks to Liliana Montecinos at the Biblioteca Nacional in Santiago, who was unfailingly generous with her time and attention, and helped to make the months I spent at the library very productive ones. I am very grateful to Angel Soto, for his friendly welcome, numerous introductions and the opportunity to present and discuss my work with many students and teachers. I also want to thank Leonel Lienlaf, for putting up with all my questions and sharing his thoughts with me. I owe a huge debt of thanks to many friends: Isobel, Chris, Michael and Kate for giving up their own time to read, comment on and discuss my work; Ellie for being there in moments of crisis; Sara for inspiring me to embark on this research project in the first place; and especially Clare who was there right from the beginning to the very end, always helping to buoy my confidence. I cannot thank my parents enough for their incredibly generous financial support and also for always believing that I would complete this project and do it well. I may not have survived the last few days if it were not for my brother, who managed to resolve all the technical problems and stop me from panicking. And finally to my husband, Alex, thank you for making me laugh instead of cry, for keeping me sane, for being so patient and understanding. 6 LIST OF FIGURES 1.