1 Primary Source 4.1 ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN INDIA (326 B.C.)1 Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 B.C.) succeeded his father King Phillip II (382–336 B.C.) as the king of Macedon. His father had transformed tiny Macedon into a dominant military power through military successes against his neighbors to the north and south, and the creation of a new unified state comprising Greece and Macedonia. Alexander expanded on this military dominance with further campaigns of conquest. First, Alexander defeated rebelling cities on the Greek mainland, securing his territory at home. Then, he pushed into Syria, Egypt, and Assyria, and Babylon. Next, his army conquered the Persian Empire and invaded India as well. These conquests depended on brilliant military tactics, organization, strategy, and leadership, enabling Phillip and Alexander’s smaller, but highly effective forces to defeat huge armies. Among their innovations was dividing their forces into specialized and highly trained and equipped elements of combined arms—heavy and light cavalry, infantry, archers, and javelin throwers. The following passage discusses Alexander’s military expedition to India where he battled and defeated King Porus, the ruler of the Punjab region. The text can be found here. CHAPTER VII. After what manner Alexander made his bridge over the river Indus, neither Ptolemy nor Aristobulus (authors of greatest esteem with me) give any account; nor can I, at this distance of time, affirm for certain, whether it was made with ships fastened together, like that of Xerxes2 over the Hellespont, and those across the Bosphorus3 and the Ister4 by Darius;5 or whether it was one continued piece of work, resting upon piles driven into the bottom of the river. To me, it seems much more probable to have been composed with vessels close bound together. Not that I imagine the extraordinary depth of the river would not admit of one of the other sort; but because so great a work could never have been brought to perfection in so short a time. But supposing it to have been built with ships; whether they were fastened to each other with cables, and so drawn quite across the stream, as Herodotus assures us that of Xerxes was, or in the same manner as the Romans made theirs over the Rhine and Ister, and over the Euphrates and Tigris, as often as necessity required, it is impossible certainly to determine. However, the manner of laying bridges with ships over large rivers, used by the Romans, is certainly the most safe and expeditious; and, as being worthy notice, I shall here describe it. The vessels appointed for that use are launched into the river, on a signal given, and the violence of the current, as it is reasonable to imagine, hurries them downwards; but that being overcome by the labour of the rowers, they are brought at last to the place assigned, with their heads turned up the 1 John Rooke Arrian, (Ed.), Arrian’s History of Alexander’s Expedition, 2 vols. (London: Harvard University, 1814) 2:14-25. 2 Xerxes I of Persia (519–465 B.C.). 3 The strait linking the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. 4 The Danube River. 5 Darius I of Persia (550–486 B.C.). 2 stream: then, huge wicker baskets, filled with stones, and let down from the prows of each of them, keep them steady, notwithstanding the strength of the current. As soon as one of these vessels is thus fixed, they place a second at a convenient distance from her, in the same manner; then they lay large beams from one to the other, which they cover with planks laid across, and this perfects that part of the work. Thus they proceed with all the rest of the vessels, how-many-soever they have occasion to use: and then, at each end, are placed a range of steps joining it to the shore, that horses and all beasts of burthen may the more safely enter thereupon, and the more easily pass over. And these serve also as a security to the whole, by joining it to the banks on each side. After this manner the work is soon perfected: and notwithstanding the multitude of hands employed on such a fabric, no order nor decorum is wanting; for the exhortation of the overseers to some to perform their duty, and their threats to others for neglect thereof, are no manner of hindrance either to their receiving orders, or the quick execution of the whole work. CHAPTER VIII. These sort of bridges were in most request among the old Romans. But after what manner this was laid over the river Indus is hard to determine, seeing none of all those who went upon that expedition make any mention thereof: nevertheless I cannot forbear thinking it was framed much according to the description here given; or if any will be pleased to give us a better, I shall submit to his judgment. Alexander having gained the other side, again offered sacrifices to the gods, according to the custom of his country; and marching forwards, arrived at Taxila, a large wealthy city, and the most populous between Indus and Hydaspes. Taxiles,6 prince of the place, and the Indian inhabitants thereof, received him in a friendly manner; and he, in return, added as much of the adjacent country to their territories, as they requested. Thither came ambassadors to him from Ambisarus, king of the Indian mountaineers, with his brother, and some of his nobles; as also others from Doxareus, a prince of that country, with presents. Alexander again sacrificed in Taxila, and exhibited sports according to custom; and having made Philip, the son of Machetas, governor of the province, and placed a garrison in the city, he left his sick men there for the recovery of their health, and moved on towards the river Hydaspes, because he had received notice that Porus with all his army lay encamped on the other side of that river, being fully resolved, either to intercept his passage over, or to attack him upon his landing on that side. Alexander, upon this, dispatched Caenus the son of Polemocrates back to the river Indus, to cause those vessels wherewith they passed that river to be taken in pieces, and conveyed to the Hydaspes. This was accordingly performed, the lesser vessels being divided into two parts, and those of thirty oars into three. The parts were conveyed on carriages to the banks of Hydaspes, and there joined together again, and launched into the river. He in the meantime, with the forces which he had brought from Taxila, and five thousand Indians under the command of Taxiles and the other princes of that country, marched forwards, and encamped upon the banks of that river. CHAPTER IX. 6 A prince who ruled the region between the Indus and Hydespas Rivers. He was on hostile terms with Porus and willingly lent support to Alexander in his campaign against Porus. 3 Porus lay encamped on the opposite side with his whole army, surrounded by his elephants; who, whithersoever he perceived Alexander’s navy move, immediately prepared to defend the passage; and detached parties to all the places where he knew the river was fordable, and appointed captains over each, to obstruct the Macedonians if they should attempt to cross the river. Alexander perceiving this, resolved to divide his army, in the same manner, into several small parties, to distract Porus in his resolutions, and render his efforts fruitless: which being accordingly performed, and the several parties dispatched several ways, some were ordered to lay the country waste in a hostile manner, others to seek out a place where the river might be easily passed over. He also commanded vast stores of corn to be brought into his camp from all the country on this side of Hydaspes, that Porus might imagine he would remain in his present encampment till the waters of the river fell away in the winter season, for then he might force his way over with his army in spite of all opposition. His ships being therefore drawn this way and that, and the coverings of his tents stuffed with light buoyant matter, as usual, and the whole bank thoroughly lined with horse and foot, he suffered Porus to take no rest, and rendered him thereby wholly incapable of discerning where the storm would fall, or how best to prepare for the safety of himself and his army. About that time of the year (for it was then nigh the summer solstice) all the rivers of India are full of water, and consequently muddy and rapid, for heavy and frequent rains then fall throughout all the country; and besides, the snow upon Mount Caucasus (from whence most of them have their rise) melting with heat, their streams are thereby exceedingly augmented: but the snow again congealing in winter, and the rains ceasing, the rivers become clearer and shallower, insomuch that all of them are fordable in some place or other, except the Indus and Ganges, and perhaps one more; however, the Hydaspes may be certainly passed over by fords. CHAPTER X. Alexander therefore caused a report to be spread abroad, that he would tarry till that time of the year, and then attempt to force his passage over; nevertheless he caused a strict watch to be kept throughout his camp, to try if by any means he could pass over secretly, and unobserved by the enemy. But he despaired of gaining his ends in that part where Porus lay encamped, as well because of the multitude of his elephants, as of his huge army, well accoutred and excellently disciplined, which was in readiness to fall upon them the moment they came out of the river: besides which, his horses would not be able to gain the other side without much difficulty, because of the elephants, which would meet them, and fright them exceedingly, both with their unusual noise and aspect: and he was in some doubt whether they could possibly be kept upon the hides, and so be conveyed across the river; because the moment they happened to espy the elephants upon the banks before them, they would be seized with fear, and leap into the water.