LANDSCAPES Landscapes and Livelihoods Series No.2 IUCN Forest Conservation Programme LIVELIHOODS Poverty and Conservation Landscapes, People and Power R.J. Fisher, Stewart Maginnis, W.J. Jackson, Edmund Barrow and Sally Jeanrenaud The World Conservation Union Poverty and Conservation Landscapes, People and Power The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN. Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK Copyright: © 2005 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. Citation: R.J. Fisher, Stewart Maginnis, W.J. Jackson, Edmund Barrow and Sally Jeanrenaud (2005). Poverty and Conservation: Landscapes, People and Power. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xvi + 148 pp. ISBN: 2-8317-0880-X Photography: front cover: Anthea Stephens/IUCN; back cover: Emilie Mottier/IUCN WWRP page 1, 17, 77, 99 and 120: Anthea Stephens/IUCN; page 49: E.G. Barrow/IUCN Layout by: Patricia Halladay Graphic Design Printed by: ROPRESS Druckerei, Zurich, Switzerland Available from: IUCN Publications Services Unit 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1223 277894 Fax: +44 1223 277175 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.iucn.org A catalogue of IUCN publications is also available Composition The cover is printed on Aconda 300 gsm which contains 40% recycled fibre and of the Paper: 60% virgin wood fibre of which at least 50% is FSC certified. The content is printed on Normaset Puro 90 mgs which is 100% virgin wood fibre of which at least 30% is FSC certified. Printed with vegetable oil-based inks. SGS-CoC-0474 FSC Trademark © 1996 © Forest Stewardship Council A.C. Poverty and Conservation Landscapes, People and Power R.J. Fisher, Stewart Maginnis, W.J. Jackson, Edmund Barrow and Sally Jeanrenaud With the assistance of Andrew Ingles, Richard Friend, Rati Mehrotra, Taghi Farvar and Michelle Laurie IUCN – The World Conservation Union 2005 IUCN’s Forest Conservation Programme IUCN’s Forest Conservation Programme coordinates and supports the activities of the IUCN Secretariat and members working with forest ecosystems. The goal of forest conservation is achieved through promoting protection, restoration and sustainable use of forest resources, so that forests provide the full potential range of goods and services. The programme makes contributions to policy at various levels and uses field projects to derive lessons to feed into the policy debate. The principles of Caring for the Earth, published jointly by IUCN, WWF and UNEP in 1991, are applied to these projects, which combine the needs of conservation with those of local communities. One major activity is to develop coherent and informed policies on forest conservation in order to advocate the translation of policies into effective actions. IUCN frequently advises major development institutions on forest issues, to ensure that conservation priorities are adequately addressed in their projects and programmes. Contents Acknowledgements x Foreword xi Summary xii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 The challenge of sustainable development 1 Livelihoods, poverty and conservation 5 Threats to livelihoods from development 8 Threats to livelihoods from conservation 9 Causal linkages and their implications 11 Addressing poverty and conservation 13 Conclusions 15 Chapter 2. Past Experiences 17 Introduction 17 Reviewing past experiences 18 1960s and 1970s: Nature as wilderness — people as threat 18 Nature as biodiversity — people as a resource 21 Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) 23 Biodiversity conservation 24 Social development 25 Economic opportunities 25 Managing ICDPs 26 ICDPs: Flawed in theory? 27 New-generation ICDPs 29 Collaborative management 29 Community-based conservation 29 Sustainable use in CBNRM 35 Has CBNRM contributed to poverty reduction? 37 Lessons from CBNRM 38 Implications of these changes 38 Some key concepts 39 The multiple dimensions of poverty 39 Disaggregating social categories 41 The DFID livelihoods framework 45 Institutions 46 Political ecology 47 Conclusions 48 Chapter 3. Case Studies 49 Case Study 1. Pred Nai Community Forest, Trad Province, Thailand 51 Introduction 51 Poverty reduction 52 Effect on biodiversity 54 Additional impacts 54 Partnerships 55 Sustainability 56 Political and legislative context 56 Conclusion 58 Acknowledgements 58 Reference 59 Lessons for this book 59 Case Study 2. Forest Restoration in Shinyanga, Tanzania 61 Introduction 61 Legislative and policy framework 63 Poverty reduction 63 Biodiversity impacts 64 Other impacts 65 Sustainability 66 Conclusion 67 References 69 Lessons for this book 70 Case Study 3. The NAFRI-IUCN NTFP Project in Lao PDR 72 Nam Pheng village in Oudomxay province 73 Project activities 74 References 76 Lessons for this book 76 Chapter 4. Scale, Boundaries and Negotiation 77 Introduction 77 Linkages and trade-offs 78 Seeking the best possible outcomes 79 Conceptual tools for addressing conservation and poverty 81 Multiple scales and multiple levels 81 The ecosystem approach 82 The landscape concept 84 Application to poverty reduction and conservation 86 Implications of negotiated landscapes for protected areas 90 Progressive Contextualisation 90 Negotiated landscapes 91 Negotiation and level playing fields 94 Conclusions 98 Chapter 5. Structures, institutions and constraints 99 Introduction 99 Community institutions 101 Institutional arrangements for tenure and access 103 Institutions at the landscape level 106 Devolution and decentralisation 106 The wider institutional landscape 108 Non-timber forest products in India 108 Institutional change and power 109 Economic institutions and instruments 112 National poverty reduction planning processes 113 Multiple levels and multiple points of entry 114 Implications of linking poverty reduction and conservation 117 In general 117 Protected areas 118 Conclusions 119 Chapter 6. Linking Conservation and Poverty Reduction 120 The challenge 120 The scope for linking conservation and poverty reduction 122 A learning approach 122 Conclusion 126 Appendix: Economic instruments 127 Non-market based mechanisms 128 Global Environment Facility 128 Debt-for-nature swaps 128 Conservation Trust Funds or Environmental Funds 129 Tobin-type and other taxes 129 Compensation to communities for opportunity cost and damages 130 Market-based mechanisms 131 Markets for carbon sequestration 131 Markets for watershed services 132 Biodiversity offsets and mitigation and conservation banking 133 Markets for recreation 134 Pro-poor financing for conservation 135 Endnotes 136 References 139 Boxes Box 1. The Millennium Development Goals 2 Box 2. What is poverty? 5 Box 3. The value of wild resources 6 Box 4. Food security and diversity from Laotian forests 7 Box 5. Effects of irrigation in Cameroon 9 Box 6. Human actions and biodiversity 32 Box 7. CAMPFIRE, Zimbabwe 35 Box 8. Gender, poverty, environment and conservation 43 Box 9. The concept of “institution” 47 Box 10. Economic and biodiversity values from ngitili 68 Box 11. Principles of the ecosystem approach 82 Box 12. The Yali Falls Dam and transboundary effects 87 Box 13. Understanding poverty in rural Lao PDR 88 Box 14. Tenure, natural resources and poverty 104 Box 15. A regional network in Central America 111 Box 16. Conservation in the Tanga Coastal Zone 115 Figures Figure 1. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework 46 Figure 2. Scope for conservation to address poverty reduction 123 Tables Table 1. Components of community conservation 34 Table 2. Dimensions of poverty 40 Table 3. Some dimensions of poverty reduction 41 Table 4. Entry points for implementation 124 Acknowledgements This book is an output of an IUCN project on poverty and conservation, led by the IUCN Forest Conservation Programme in close collaboration with IUCN’s Asia Regional Office, Eastern Africa Regional Office and the Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (CEESP). It was supported by IUCN’s 3I-C Fund, which promotes innovation, integration, information and communication. IUCN established the 3I-C Fund to provide an incentive system to help it adapt to a changing world and guide the course of its future programme work. The aim of the project on poverty and conservation was to explore the link between poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods and ecosystem management and to build effective partnership with social development organisations. We are extremely grateful to the many people who have contributed to the development of the ideas in this book. This includes participants who attended workshops in Kao Yai, Thailand and Abederes, Kenya, as well as reviewers and others: Lorena Aguilar, Ruth Barreto, Joshua Bishop, Guido Broekhoven, Florence Chege, Nigel Dudley, Piyathip Eawpanich, Joanna Elliott, Phil Franks, Samuel Gichere, Don Gilmour, Peter Hazlewood, Frits Hesselink, David Kaimowitz, Margaret Kakande, LY Oumou Koulsoum, Yam